The Variation of Animals and Plants Under Domestication. Vol I.

[247] M. P. Gervais, 'Hist. Nat. des Mammifères, tom. i., 1854, p. 288.

[248] U. Aldrovandi, 'De Quadrupedibus digitatis,' 1637, p. 383. For Confucius and G. Markham, see a writer who has studied the subject, in 'Cottage Gardener,' Jan. 22nd, 1861, p. 250.

[249] Owen, 'British Fossil Mammals,' p. 212.

[250] Bechstein, 'Naturgesch. Deutschlands,' 1801, b. i. p. 1133. I have received similar accounts with respect to England and Scotland.

[251] 'Pigeons and Rabbits,' by E. S. Delamer, 1854, p. 133. Sir J. Sebright ('Observations on Instinct,' 1836, p. 10) speaks most strongly on the difficulty. But this difficulty is not invariable, as I have received two accounts of perfect success in taming and breeding from the wild rabbit. See also Dr. P. Broca, in 'Journal de la Physiologie' tom. ii. p. 368.

Transcriber's Note: this note and the previous one were interchanged; corrected by Errata page.

[252] Gervais, 'Hist. Nat. des Mammifères,' tom. i. p. 292.

[253] See Dr. P. Broca's interesting memoir on this subject in Brown-Sequard's 'Journ. de Phys.' vol. ii. p. 367.

[254] They are briefly described in the 'Journal of Horticulture,' May 7th, 1861, p. 108.

[255] 'Journal of Horticulture,' 1861, p. 380.

[256] 'Journal of Horticulture,' May 28th, 1861, p. 169.

[257] 'Journal of Horticulture,' 1861, p. 327. With respect to the ears, see Delamer on 'Pigeons and Rabbits,' 1854, p. 141; also 'Poultry Chronicle,' vol. ii. p. 499, and ditto for 1854, p. 586.

[258] Delamer, 'Pigeons and Rabbits,' p. 136. See also 'Journal of Horticulture,' 1861, p. 375.

[259] 'An Account of the different Kinds of Sheep in the Russian Dominions,' 1794, p. 39.

[260] 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.,' June 23rd, 1857, p. 159.

[261] 'Cottage Gardener,' 1857, p. 141.

[262] 'Journal of Horticulture,' April 9th, 1861, p. 35.

[263] Mr. Bartlett, in 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.,' 1861. p. 40.

[264] 'Phenomenon in Himalayan Rabbits,' in 'Journal of Horticulture,' 1865, Jan. 27th, p. 102.

[265] G. R. Waterhouse, 'Natural History of Mammalia: Rodents,' 1846, pp. 52, 60, 105.

[266] Delamer on 'Pigeons and Rabbits,' p. 114.

[267] Gosse's 'Sojourn in Jamaica,' 1851, p. 441, as described by an excellent observer, Mr. R. Hill. This is the only known case in which rabbits have become feral in a hot country. They can be kept, however, at Loanda (see Livingstone's 'Travels,' p. 407). In parts of India, as I am informed by Mr. Blyth, they breed well.

[268] Darwin's 'Journal of Researches,' p. 193; and 'Zoology of the Voyage of the Beagle: Mammalia,' p. 92.

[269] Kerr's 'Collection of Voyages,' vol. ii. p. 177; p. 205 for Cada Mosto. According to a work published in Lisbon in 1717, entitled 'Historia Insulana,' written by a Jesuit, the rabbits were turned out in 1420. Some authors believe that the island was discovered in 1413.

[270] Something of the same kind has occurred on the island of Lipari, where, according to Spallanzani ('Voyage dans les deux Siciles,' quoted by Godron sur l'Espèce, p. 364), a countryman turned out some rabbits which multiplied prodigiously, but, says Spallanzani, "les lapins de l'ile de Lipari sont plus petits que ceux qu'on élève en domesticité."

[271] Waterhouse, 'Nat. Hist. Mammalia,' vol. ii. p. 36.

[272] These rabbits have run wild for a considerable time in Sandon Park, and in other places in Staffordshire and Shropshire. They originated, as I have been informed by the gamekeeper, from variously-coloured domestic rabbits which had been turned out. They vary in colour; but many are symmetrically coloured, being white with a streak along the spine, and with the ears and certain marks about the head of a blackish-grey tint. They have rather longer bodies than common rabbits.

[273] See Prof. Owen's remarks on this subject in his paper on the 'Zoological Significance of the Brain, &c., of Man, &c.,' read before Brit. Association, 1862; with respect to Birds, see 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.,' Jan. 11th, 1848, p. 8.

[274] This standard is apparently considerably too low, for Dr. Crisp ('Proc. Zoolog. Soc.,' 1861, p. 80) gives 210 grains as the actual weight of the brain of a hare which weighed 7lbs., and 125 grains as the weight of the brain of a rabbit which weighed 3 lbs. 5 oz., that is, the same weight as the rabbit No. 1 in my list. Now the contents of the skull of rabbit No. 1 in shot is in my table 972 grains; and according to Dr. Crisp's ratio of 125 to 210, the skull of the hare ought to have contained 1632 grains of shot, instead of only (in the largest hare in my table) 1455 grains.

[275] The Hon. C. Murray has sent me some very valuable specimens from Persia; and H.M. Consul, Mr. Keith Abbott, has given me information on the pigeons of the same country. I am deeply indebted to Sir Walter Elliot for an immense collection of skins from Madras, with much information regarding them. Mr. Blyth has freely communicated to me his stores of knowledge on this and all other related subjects. The Rajah Sir James Brooke sent me specimens from Borneo, as has H.M. Consul, Mr. Swinhoe, from Amoy in China, and Dr. Daniell from the west coast of Africa.

[276] Mr. B. P. Brent, well known for his various contributions to poultry literature, has aided me in every way during several years; so has Mr. Tegetmeier, with unwearied kindness. This latter gentleman, who is well known for his works on poultry, and who has largely bred pigeons, has looked over this and the following chapters. Mr. Bult formerly showed me his unrivalled collection of Pouters, and gave me specimens. I had access to Mr. Wicking's collection, which contained a greater assortment of many kinds than could anywhere else be seen; and he has always aided me with specimens and information given in the freest manner. Mr. Haynes and Mr. Corker have given me specimens of their magnificent Carriers. To Mr. Harrison Weir I am likewise indebted. Nor must I by any means pass over the assistance received from Mr. J. M. Eaton, Mr. Baker, Mr. Evans, and Mr. J. Baily, jun., of Mount-street—to the latter gentleman I have been indebted for some valuable specimens. To all these gentlemen I beg permission to return my sincere and cordial thanks.

[277] 'Les Pigeons de Volière et de Colombier,' Paris, 1824. During forty-five years the sole occupation of M. Corbié was the care of the pigeons belonging to the Duchess of Berry.

[278] 'Coup d'Oeil sur l'Ordre des Pigeons,' par Prince C. L. Bonaparte, Paris, 1855. This author makes 288 species, ranked under 85 genera.

[279] As I so often refer to the size of the C. livia, or rock-pigeon, it may be convenient to give the mean between the measurements of two wild birds, kindly sent me by Dr. Edmondstone from the Shetland Islands:—

Inches.
Length from feathered base of beak to end of tail		14.25
"	" " " to oil-gland	9.5
"	from tip of beak to end of tail	15.02
"	of tail-feathers	4.62
"	from tip to tip of wing	26.75
"	of folded wing	9.25
Beak.—Length from tip of beak to feathered base		.77
"	Thickness, measured vertically at further end of nostrils	.23
"	Breadth, measured at same place	.16
Feet.—Length from end of middle toe (without claw) to distal end of tibia		2.77
"	Length from end of middle toe to end of hind toe (without claws)	2.02
Weight 14¼ ounces.

[280] This drawing was made from a dead bird. The six following figures were drawn with great care by Mr. Luke Wells from living birds selected by Mr. Tegetmeier. It may be confidently asserted that the characters of the six breeds which have been figured are not in the least exaggerated.

[281] 'Das Ganze der Taubenzucht:' Weimar, 1837, pl. 11 and 12.

[282] Boitard and Corbié, 'Les Pigeons,' &c., p. 177, pl. 6.

[283] 'Die Taubenzucht,' Ulm, 1824, s. 42.

[284] This treatise was written by Sayzid Mohammed Musari, who died in 1770: I owe to the great kindness of Sir W. Elliot a translation of this curious treatise.

[285] 'Poultry Chronicle,' vol. ii. p. 573.

[286] 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. History,' vol. xix., 1847, p. 105.

[287] This gland occurs in most birds; but Nitzsch (in his 'Pterylographie,' 1840, p. 55) states that it is absent in two species of Columba, in several species of Psittacus, in some species of Otis, and in most or all birds of the Ostrich family. It can hardly be an accidental coincidence that the two species of Columba, which are destitute of an oil-gland, have an unusual number of tail-feathers, namely 16, and in this respect resemble Fantails.

[288] See the two excellent editions published by Mr. J. M. Eaton in 1852 and 1858, entitled 'A Treatise on Fancy Pigeons.'

[289] English translation, by F. Gladwin, 4th edition, vol. i. The habit of the Lotan is also described in the Persian treatise before alluded to, published about 100 years ago: at this date the Lotans were generally white and crested as at present. Mr. Blyth describes these birds in 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.,' vol. xiv., 1847, p. 104: he says that they "may be seen at any of the Calcutta bird-dealers."

[290] 'Journal of Horticulture,' Oct. 22, 1861, p. 76.

[291] See the account of the House-tumblers kept at Glasgow, in the 'Cottage Gardener,' 1858, p. 285. Also Mr. Brent's paper, 'Journal of Horticulture,' 1861, p. 76.

[292] J. M. Eaton's 'Treatise on Pigeons,' 1852, p. 9.

[293] J. M. Eaton's Treatise, edit. 1858, p. 76.

[294] Neumeister,'Taubenzucht,' Tab. 4, fig. i.

[295] Riedel, 'Die Taubenzucht,' 1824, s. 26. Bechstein, 'Naturgeschichte Deutschlands,' Band iv. s. 36, 1795.

[296] Willoughby's 'Ornithology,' edited by Ray.

[297] J. M. Eaton's edition (1858) of Moore, p. 98.

[298] Pigeon Patu Plongeur. 'Les Pigeons,' &c., p. 165.

[299] 'Naturgesch. Deutschlands,' Band iv. s. 47.

[300] Mr. W. B. Tegetmeier, 'Journal of Horticulture,' Jan. 20th, 1863, p. 58.

[301] 'Coup-d'œil sur l'Ordre des Pigeons,' par C. L. Bonaparte; Comptes Rendus, 1854-55. Mr. Blyth, in 'Annals of Nat. Hist.,' vol. xix., 1847, p. 41, mentions, as a very singular fact, "that of the two species of Ectopistes, which are nearly allied to each other, one should have fourteen tail-feathers, while the other, the passenger pigeon of North America, should possess but the usual number—twelve."

[302] Described and figured in the 'Poultry Chronicle,' vol. iii., 1855, p. 82.

[303] 'The Pigeon Book,' by Mr. B. P. Brent, 1859, p. 41.

[304] 'Die Staarhälsige Taube, Das Ganze, &c.,' s. 21, tab. i. fig. 4.

[305] 'A Treatise on the Almond Tumbler,' by J. M. Eaton, 1852, p. 8, et passim.

[306] A Treatise, &c, p. 10.

[307] Boitard and Corbié, 'Les Pigeons,' &c. 1824, p. 173.

[308] 'Le Pigeon Voyageur Belge,' 1865, p. 87.

[309] Prof. A. Newton ('Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' 1865, p. 716) remarks that he knows no species which presents any remarkable sexual distinction; but it is stated ('Naturalist's Library, Birds,' vol. ix. p. 117) that the excrescence at the base of the beak in the Carpophaga oceanica is sexual: this, if correct, is an interesting point of analogy with the male Carrier, which has the wattle at the base of its beak so much more developed than in the female. Mr. Wallace informs me that in the sub-family of the Treronidæ the sexes often differ in vividness of colour.

[310] I am not sure that I have designated the different kinds of vertebræ correctly: but I observe that different anatomists follow in this respect different rules, and, as I use the same terms in the comparison of all the skeletons, this, I hope, will not signify.

[311] J. M. Eaton's Treatise, edit. 1858, p. 78.

[312] In an analogous, but converse, manner, certain natural groups of the Columbidæ, from being more terrestrial in their habits than other allied groups, have larger feet. See Prince Bonaparte's 'Coup-d'œil sur l'Ordre des Pigeons.'

[313] It perhaps deserves notice that besides these five birds two of the eight were barbs, which, as I have shown, must be classed in the same group with the long-beaked carriers and runts. Barbs may properly be called short-beaked carriers. It would, therefore, appear as if, during the reduction of their beaks, their wings had retained a little of that excess of length which is characteristic of their nearest relations and progenitors.

[314] Temminck, 'Hist. Nat. Gén. des Pigeons et des Gallinacés,' tom. i., 1813, p. 170.

[315] This term was used by John Hunter for such differences in structure between the males and females, as are not directly connected with the act of reproduction, as the tail of the peacock, the horns of deer, &c.

[316] Temminck, 'Hist. Nat. Gén. des Pigeons,' &c., tom. i. p. 191.

[317] I have heard through Sir C. Lyell from Miss Buckley, that some half-bred carriers kept during many years near London regularly settled by day on some adjoining trees, and, after being disturbed in their loft by their young being taken, roosted on them at night.

[318] 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.,' 2nd ser., vol. xx., 1857, p. 509; and in a late volume of the Journal of the Asiatic Society.

[319] In works written on the pigeon by fanciers I have sometimes observed the mistaken belief expressed that the species which naturalists call ground-pigeons (in contradistinction to arboreal pigeons) do not perch and build on trees. In these same works wild species resembling the chief domestic races are often said to exist in various parts of the world, but such species are quite unknown to naturalists.

[320] Sir E. Schomburgk, in 'Journal R. Geograph. Soc.,' vol. xiii., 1844, p. 32.

[321] Rev. E. S. Dixon, 'Ornamental Poultry,' 1848, pp. 63, 66.

[322] Proc. Zoolog. Soc., 1859, p. 400.

[323] Temminck, 'Hist. Nat. Gén. des Pigeons,' tom. i.; also 'Les Pigeons,' par Mad. Knip and Temminck. Bonaparte however, in his 'Coup-d'œil,' believes that two closely allied species are confounded together under this name. The C. leucocephala of the West Indies is stated by Temminck to be a rock-pigeon; but I am informed by Mr. Gosse that this is an error.

[324] 'Handbuch der Naturgesch. Vogel Deutschlands.'

[325] 'Tagebuch Reise nach Färo,' 1830, s. 62.

[326] 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.,' vol. xix., 1847, p. 102. This excellent paper on pigeons is well worth consulting.

[327] 'Natural History of Ireland,' Birds, vol. ii. (1850), p. 11. For Graba, see previous reference.

[328] 'Coup-d'œil sur l'Ordre des Pigeons,' Comptes Rendus, 1854-55.

[329] 'Naturgesch. Deutschlands,' Band iv., 1795, s. 14.

[330] 'History of British Birds,' vol. i. pp. 275-284. Mr. Andrew Duncan tamed a rock-pigeon in the Shetland Islands. Mr. James Barclay, and Mr. Smith of Uyea Sound, both say that the wild rock-pigeon can be easily tamed; and the former gentleman asserts that the tamed birds breed four times a year. Dr. Lawrence Edmondstone informs me that a wild rock-pigeon came and settled in his dovecot in Balta Sound in the Shetland Islands, and bred with his pigeons; he has also given me other instances of the wild rock-pigeon having been taken young and breeding in captivity.

[331] 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. History,' vol. xix., 1847, p. 103, and vol. for 1857, p. 512.

[332] Domestic pigeons of the common kind are mentioned as being pretty numerous in John Barbut's 'Description of the Coast of Guinea' (p. 215), published in 1746; they are said, in accordance with the name which they bear, to have been imported.

[333] With respect to feral pigeons—for Juan Fernandez, see Bertero in 'Annal. des Sc. Nat.,' tom. xxi. p. 351. For Norfolk Island, see Rev. E. S. Dixon in the 'Dovecote,' 1851, p. 14, on the authority of Mr. Gould. For Ascension I rely on MS. information given me by Mr. Layard. For the banks of the Hudson, see Blyth in 'Annals of Nat. Hist.,' vol. xx., 1857, p. 511. For Scotland, see Macgillivray, 'British Birds,' vol. i. p. 275; also Thompson's 'Nat. History of Ireland, Birds,' vol. ii. p. 11. For ducks, see Rev. E. S. Dixon, 'Ornamental Poultry,' 1847, p. 122. For the feral hybrids of the common and musk-ducks, see Audubon's 'American Ornithology,' and Selys-Longchamp's 'Hybrides dans la Famille des Anatides.' For the goose, Isidore Geoffrey St. Hilaire, 'Hist. Nat. Gén.,' tom. iii. p. 498. For guinea-fowls, see Gosse's 'Naturalist's Sojourn in Jamaica,' p. 124; and his 'Birds of Jamaica' for fuller particulars. I saw the wild guinea-fowl in Ascension. For the peacock, see 'A Week at Port Royal,' by a competent authority, Mr. R. Hill, p. 42. For the turkey I rely on oral information; I ascertained that they were not Curassows. With respect to fowls I will give the references in the next chapter.

[334] I have drawn out a long table of the various crosses made by fanciers between the several domestic breeds, but I do not think it worth publishing. I have myself made for this special purpose many crosses, and all were perfectly fertile. I have united in one bird five of the most distinct races, and with patience I might undoubtedly have thus united all. The case of five distinct breeds being blended together with unimpaired fertility is important, because Gärtner has shown that it is a very general, though not, as he thought, universal rule, that complex crosses between several species are excessively sterile. I have met with only two or three cases of reported sterility in the offspring of certain races when crossed. Von Pistor ('Das Ganze der Feld-taubenzucht,' 1831, s. 15) asserts that the mongrels from barbs and fantails are sterile: I have proved this to be erroneous, not only by crossing these hybrids with several other hybrids of the same parentage, but by the more severe test of pairing brother and sister hybrids inter se, and they were perfectly fertile. Temminck has stated ('Hist. Nat. Gén. des Pigeons,' tom. i. p. 197) that the turbit or owl will not cross readily with other breeds: but my turbits crossed, when left free, with almond tumblers and with trumpeters; the same thing has occurred (Rev. E. S. Dixon, 'The Dovecot,' p. 107) between turbits and dovecots and nuns. I have crossed turbits with barbs, as has M. Boitard (p. 34), who says the hybrids were very fertile. Hybrids from a turbit and fantail have been known to breed inter se (Riedel, Taubenzucht, s. 25, and Bechstein, 'Naturgesch. Deutsch.' B. iv. s. 44). Turbits (Riedel, s. 26) have been crossed with pouters and with jacobins, and with a hybrid jacobin-trumpeter (Riedel, s. 27). The latter author has, however, made some vague statements (s. 22) on the sterility of turbits when crossed with certain other crossed breeds. But I have little doubt that the Rev. E. S. Dixon's explanation of such statements is correct, viz. that individual birds both with turbits and other breeds are occasionally sterile.

[335] 'Das Ganze der Taubenzucht,' s. 18.

[336] 'Les Pigeons,' &c., p. 35.

[337] Domestic pigeons pair readily with the allied C. oenas (Bechstein, 'Naturgesch. Deutschlands,' B. iv. s. 3); and Mr. Brent has made the same cross several times in England, but the young were very apt to die at about ten days old; one hybrid which he reared (from C. oenas and a male Antwerp carrier) paired with a dragon, but never laid eggs. Bechstein further states (s. 26) that the domestic pigeon will cross with C. palumbus, Turtur risoria, and T. vulgaris, but nothing is said of the fertility of the hybrids, and this would have been mentioned had the fact been ascertained. In the Zoological Gardens (MS. report to me from Mr. James Hunt) a male hybrid from Turtur vulgaris and a domestic pigeon "paired with several different species of pigeons and doves, but none of the eggs were good." Hybrids from C. oenas and gymnophthalmos were sterile. In Loudon's 'Mag. of Nat. Hist.' vol. vii. 1834, p. 154, it is said that a male hybrid (from Turtur vulgaris male, and the cream-coloured T. risoria female) paired during two years with a female T. risoria, and the latter laid many eggs, but all were sterile. MM. Boitard and Corbié ('Les Pigeons,' p. 235) state that the hybrids from these two turtle-doves are invariably sterile both inter se and with either pure parent. The experiment was tried by M. Corbié "avec une espèce d'obstination;" and likewise by M. Manduyt, and by M. Vieillot. Temminck also found the hybrids from these two species quite barren. Therefore, when Bechstein ('Naturgesch. Vogel. Deutschlands,' B. 4, s. 101) asserts that the hybrids from these two turtle-doves propagate inter se equally well with pure species, and when a writer in the 'Field' newspaper (in a letter dated Nov. 10th, 1858) makes a similar assertion, it would appear that there must be some mistake; though what the mistake is I know not, as Bechstein at least must have known the white variety of T. risoria: it would be an unparalleled fact if the same two species sometimes produced extremely fertile, and sometimes extremely barren, offspring. In the MS. report from the Zoological Gardens it is said that hybrids from Turtur vulgaris and suratensis, and from T. vulgaris and Ectopistes migratorius, were sterile. Two of the latter male hybrids paired with their pure parents, viz. Turtur vulgaris and the Ectopistes, and likewise with T. risoria and with Columba oenas, and many eggs were produced, but all were barren. At Paris, hybrids have been raised (Isid. Geoffrey Saint Hilaire, 'Hist. Nat. Générale,' tom. iii. p. 180) from Turtur auritus with T. cambayensis and with T. suratensis; but nothing is said of their fertility. At the Zoological Gardens of London the Goura coronata and victoriæ produced a hybrid, which paired with the pure G. coronata, and laid several eggs, but these proved barren. In 1860 Columba gymnophthalmos and maculosa produced hybrids in these same gardens.

[338] There is one exception to the rule, namely in a sub-variety of the swallow of German origin, which is figured by Neumeister, and was shown to me by Mr. Wicking. This bird is blue, but has not the black wing-bars; for our object, however, in tracing the descent of the chief races, this exception signifies the less as the swallow approaches closely in structure to C. livia. In many sub-varieties, the black bars are replaced by bars of various colours. The figures given by Neumeister are sufficient to show that, if the wings alone are blue, the black wing-bars appear.

[339] I have observed blue birds with all the above-mentioned marks in the following races, which seemed to be perfectly pure, and were shown at various exhibitions. Pouters, with the double black wing-bars, with white croup, dark bar to end of tail, and white edging to outer tail-feathers. Turbits, with all these same characters. Fantails, with the same; but the croup in some was bluish or pure blue: Mr. Wicking bred blue fantails from two black birds. Carriers (including the Bagadotten of Neumeister), with all the marks: two birds which I examined had white, and two had blue croups; the white edging to the outer tail-feathers was not present in all. Mr. Corker, a great breeder, assures me that, if black carriers are matched for many successive generations, the offspring become first ash-coloured, and then blue with black wing-bars. Runts of the elongated breed had the same marks, but the croup was pale blue; the outer tail-feathers had white edges. Neumeister figures the great Florence Runt of a blue colour with black bars. Jacobins are very rarely blue, but I have received authentic accounts of at least two instances of the blue variety with black bars having appeared in England: blue jacobins were bred by Mr. Brent from two black birds. I have seen common tumblers, both Indian and English, and short-faced tumblers, of a blue colour, with black wing-bars, with the black bar at the end of the tail, and with the outer tail-feathers edged with white; the croup in all was blue, or extremely pale blue, never absolutely white. Blue barbs and trumpeters seem to be excessively rare; but Neumeister, who may be implicitly trusted, figures blue varieties of both, with black wing-bars. Mr. Brent informs me that he has seen a blue barb; and Mr. H. Weir, as I am informed by Mr. Tegetmeier, once bred a silver (which means very pale blue) barb from two yellow birds.

[340] Mr. Blyth informs me that all the domestic races in India have the croup blue; but this is not invariable, for I possess a very pale blue Simmali pigeon with the croup perfectly white, sent to me by Sir W. Elliot from Madras. A slaty-blue and chequered Nakshi pigeon has some white feathers on the croup alone. In some other Indian pigeons there were a few white feathers confined to the croup, and I have noticed the same fact in a carrier from Persia. The Java fantail (imported into Amoy, and thence sent me) has a perfectly white croup.

[341] 'Les Pigeons,' &c., p. 37.

[342] 'Treatise on Pigeons,' 1858, p. 145.

[343] J. Moore's 'Columbarium,' 1735, in J. M. Eaton's edition, 1852, p. 71.

[344] I could give numerous examples; two will suffice. A mongrel, whose four grandparents were a white turbit, white trumpeter, white fantail, and blue pouter, was white all over, except a very few feathers about the head and on the wings, but the whole tail and tail-coverts were dark bluish-grey. Another mongrel, whose four grandparents were a red runt, white trumpeter, white fantail, and the same blue pouter, was pure white all over, except the tail and upper tail-coverts, which were pale fawn, and except the faintest trace of double wing-bars of the same pale fawn tint.

[345] It deserves notice, as bearing on the general subject of variation, that not only C. livia presents several wild forms, regarded by some naturalists as species and by others as sub-species or as mere varieties, but that the species of several allied genera are in the same predicament. This is the case, as Mr. Blyth has remarked to me, with Treron, Palumbus, and Turtur.

[346] 'Denkmaler,' Abth. ii. Bl. 70.

[347] The 'Dovecote,' by the Rev. E. S. Dixon, 1851, pp. 11-13. Adolphe Pictet (in his 'Les Origines Indo-Européennes,' 1859, p. 399) states that there are in the ancient Sanscrit language between 25 and 30 names for the pigeon, and other 15 or 16 Persian names; none of these are common to the European languages. This fact indicates the antiquity of the domestication in the East of the pigeon.

[348] English translation, 1601, book x. ch. xxxvii.

[349] 'Ayeen Akbery,' translated by F. Gladvin, 4to. edit., vol. i. p. 270.

[350] J. M. Eaton, 'Treatise on the Almond Tumbler,' 1851; Preface, p. vi.

[351] As in the following discussion I often speak of the present time, I should state that this chapter was completed in the year 1858.

[352] 'Ornithologie,' 1600, vol. ii. p. 360.

[353] 'A Treatise on Domestic Pigeons,' dedicated to Mr. Mayor, 1765. Preface, p. xiv.

[354] Mr. Blyth has given a translation of part of the 'Ayeen Akbery' in 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.,' vol. xix., 1847, p. 104.

[355] 'L'Hist. de la Nature des Oiseaux,' p. 314.

[356] 'Treatise on Pigeons,' 1852, p. 64.

[357] J. M. Eaton's 'Treatise on the Breeding and Managing of the Almond Tumbler,' 1851. Compare p. v. of Preface, p. 9, and p. 32.

[358] 'Treatise on Pigeons,' 1852, p. 41.

[359] Eaton's 'Treatise on Pigeons,' 1858, p. 86.

[360] See Neumeister's figure of the Florence runt, tab. 13, in 'Das Ganze der Taubenzucht.'

[361] I have drawn up this brief synopsis from various sources, but chiefly from information given me by Mr. Tegetmeier. This gentleman has kindly looked through the whole of this chapter; and from his well-known knowledge, the statements here given may be fully trusted. Mr. Tegetmeier has likewise assisted me in every possible way in obtaining for me information and specimens. I must not let this opportunity pass without expressing my cordial thanks to Mr. B. P. Brent, a well-known writer on poultry, for indefatigable assistance and the gift of many specimens.

[362] The best account of Sultans is by Miss Watts in 'The Poultry Yard,' 1856, p. 79. I owe to Mr. Brent's kindness the examination of some specimens of this breed.

[363] A good description with figures is given of this sub-breed in the 'Journal of Horticulture,' June 10th, 1862, p. 206.

[364] A description, with figures, is given of this breed in 'Journal of Horticulture,' June 3rd, 1862, p. 186. Some writers describe the comb as two-horned.

[365] Mr. Crawfurd, 'Descript. Dict. of the Indian Islands,' p. 113. Bantams are mentioned in an ancient native Japanese Encyclopædia, as I am informed, by Mr. Birch of the British Museum.

[366] 'Ornamental and Domestic Poultry,' 1848.

[367] 'Ornamental and Domestic Poultry,' 1848.

[368] Ferguson's 'Illustrated Series of Rare and Prize Poultry,' 1854, p. vi., Preface.

[369] Rev. E. S. Dixon, in his 'Ornamental Poultry,' p. 203, gives an account of Columella's work.

[370] Mr. Crawfurd 'On the Relation of the Domesticated Animals to Civilization,' separately printed, p. 6; first read before the Brit. Assoc. at Oxford, 1860.

[371] 'Quadrupèdes du Paraguay,' tom. ii. p. 324.

[372] 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc' 1832, p. 151.

[373] I have examined the feathers of some hybrids raised in the Zoological Gardens between the male G. Sonneratii and a red game-hen, and these feathers exhibited the true character of those of G. Sonneratii, except that the horny laminæ were much smaller.

[374] See also an excellent letter on the Poultry of India, by Mr. Blyth, in 'Gardener's Chronicle,' 1851, p. 619.

[375] Mr. S. J. Salter, in 'Natural History Review,' April, 1863, p. 276.

[376] See also Mr. Layard's paper in 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. History,' 2nd Series, vol. xiv. p. 62.

[377] See also Mr. Crawfurd's 'Descriptive Dict. of the Indian Islands,' 1856, p. 113.

[378] Described by Mr. G. R. Gray, 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.,' 1849, p. 62.

[379] The passage from Marsden is given by Mr. Dixon in his 'Poultry Book,' p. 176. No ornithologist now ranks this bird as a distinct species.

[380] 'Coup-d'œil général sur l'Inde Archipélagique,' tom. iii. (1849), p. 177; see also Mr. Blyth in 'Indian Sporting Review,' vol. ii. p. 5, 1856.

[381] Mr. Blyth, in 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.,' 2nd ser., vol. i. (1848), p. 455.

[382] Crawfurd, 'Desc. Dict. of Indian Islands,' 1856, p. 112.

[383] In Burmah, as I hear from Mr. Blyth, the wild and tame poultry constantly cross together, and irregular transitional forms may be seen.

[384] Idem, p. 113.

[385] Mr. Jerdon, in the 'Madras Journ. of Lit. and Science,' vol. xxii. p. 2, speaking of G. bankiva, says, "unquestionably the origin of most of the varieties of our common fowls." For Mr. Blyth, see his excellent article in 'Gardener's Chron.' 1851, p. 619; and in 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.,' vol. xx., 1847, p. 388.

[386] 'Gardener's Chronicle,' 1851, p. 619.

[387] I have consulted an eminent authority, Mr. Sclater, on this subject, and he thinks that I have not expressed myself too strongly. I am aware that one ancient author, Acosta, speaks of fowls as having inhabited S. America at the period of its discovery; and more recently, about 1795, Olivier de Serres speaks of wild fowls in the forests of Guiana; these were probably feral birds. Dr. Daniell tells me, he believes that fowls have become wild on the west coast of Equatorial Africa; they may, however, not be true fowls, but gallinaceous birds belonging to the genus Phasidus. The old voyager Barbut says that poultry are not natural to Guinea. Capt. W. Allen ('Narrative of Niger Expedition,' 1848, vol. ii. p. 42) describes wild fowls on Ilha dos Rollas, an island near St. Thomas's, on the west coast of Africa: the natives informed him that they had escaped from a vessel wrecked there many years ago; they were extremely wild, and had "a cry quite different to that of the domestic fowl," and their appearance was somewhat changed. Hence it is not a little doubtful, notwithstanding the statement of the natives, whether these birds really were fowls. That the fowl has become feral on several islands is certain. Mr. Fry, a very capable judge, informed Mr. Layard, in a letter, that the fowls which have run wild on Ascension "had nearly all got back to their primitive colours, red and black cocks, and smoky-grey hens." But unfortunately we do not know the colour of the poultry which were turned out. Fowls have become feral on the Nicobar Islands (Blyth in the 'Indian Field,' 1858, p. 62), and in the Ladrones (Anson's Voyage). Those found in the Pellew Islands (Crawfurd) are believed to be feral; and lastly, it is asserted that they have become feral in New Zealand, but whether this is correct I know not.

[388] Mr. Hewitt, in 'The Poultry Book,' by W. B. Tegetmeier, 1866, p. 248.

[389] 'Journal of Horticulture,' Jan. 14th, 1862, p. 325.

[390] 'Die Hühner und Pfauenzucht.' Ulm, 1827, s. 17. For Mr. Hewitt's statement with respect to the white Silk fowl, see the 'Poultry Book,' by W. B. Tegetmeier, 1866, p. 222. I am indebted to Mr. Orton for a letter on the same subject.

[391] Dixon, 'Ornamental and Domestic Poultry,' pp. 253, 324, 335. For game fowls, see Ferguson on 'Prize Poultry,' p. 260.

[392] 'Poultry Chronicle,' vol. ii. p. 71.

[393] Dr. Pickering, in his 'Races of Man,' 1850, p. 374, says that the head and neck of a fowl is carried in a Tribute-procession to Thoutmousis III. (1445 B.C.); but Mr. Birch of the British Museum doubts whether the figure can be identified as the head of a fowl. Some caution is necessary with reference to the absence of figures of the fowl on the ancient Egyptian monuments, on account of the strong and widely prevalent prejudice against this bird. I am informed by the Rev. S. Erhardt that on the east coast of Africa, from 4° to 6° south of the equator, most of the pagan tribes at the present day hold the fowl in aversion. The natives of the Pellew Islands would not eat the fowl, nor will the Indians in some parts of S. America. For the ancient history of the fowl, see also Volz, 'Beitrage zur Culturgeschichte,' 1852, s. 77; and Isid. Geoffroy St. Hilaire, 'Hist. Nat. Gén.,' tom. iii. p. 61. Mr. Crawfurd has given an admirable history of the fowl in his paper 'On the Relation of Domesticated Animals to Civilisation,' read before the Brit. Assoc. at Oxford in 1860, and since printed separately. I quote from him on the Greek poet Theognis, and on the Harpy Tomb described by Sir C. Fellowes. I quote from a letter of Mr. Blyth's with respect to the Institutes of Manu.

[394] 'Ornamental and Domestic Poultry,' 1847, p. 185; for passages translated from Columella, see p. 312. For Golden Hamburghs, see Albin's 'Natural History of Birds,' 3 vols., with plates, 1731-38.

[395] 'Ornamental and Domestic Poultry,' p. 152.

[396] Ferguson on 'Rare Prize Poultry,' p. 297. This writer, I am informed, cannot generally be trusted. He gives, however, figures and much information on eggs. See pp. 34 and 235 on the eggs of the Game fowl.

[397] See 'Poultry Book,' by Mr. Tegetmeier, 1866, pp. 81 and 78.

[398] 'The Cottage Gardener,' Oct. 1855, p. 13. On the thinness of the eggs of Game-fowls, see Mowbray on Poultry, 7th edit., p. 13.

[399] My information, which is very far from perfect, on chickens in the down, is derived chiefly from Mr. Dixon's 'Ornamental and Domestic Poultry.' Mr. B. P. Brent has also communicated to me many facts by letter, as has Mr. Tegetmeier. I will in each case mark my authority by the name within brackets. For the chickens of white Silk-fowls, see Tegetmeier's 'Poultry Book,' 1866, p. 221.

[400] As I hear from Mr. Tegetmeier; see also 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' 1856, p. 366. On the late development of the crest, see 'Poultry Chronicle,' vol. ii. p. 132.

[401] On these points, see 'Poultry Chronicle,' vol. iii. p. 166; and Tegetmeier's 'Poultry Book,' 1866, pp. 105 and 121.

[402] Dixon, 'Ornamental and Domestic Poultry,' p. 273.

[403] Ferguson on Rare and Prize Poultry, p. 261.

[404] Mowbray on Poultry, 7th edit. 1834, p. 13.

[405] See the full description of the varieties of the Game-breed, in Tegetmeier's 'Poultry Book,' 1866, p. 131. For Cuckoo Dorkings, p. 97.

[406] Mr. Hewitt in Tegetmeier's 'Poultry Book,' 1866, pp. 246 and 156. For hen-tailed game-cocks, see p. 131.

[407] 'The Field,' April 20th, 1861. The writer says he has seen half-a-dozen cocks thus sacrificed.

[408] 'Proceedings of Zoolog. Soc.' March, 1861, p. 102. The engraving of the hen-tailed cock just alluded to was exhibited at the Society.

[409] 'The Field,' April 20th, 1861.

[410] I am much indebted to Mr. Brent for an account, with sketches, of all the variations of the comb known to him, and likewise with respect to the tail, as presently to be given.

[411] The 'Poultry Book,' by Tegetmeier, 1866, p. 234.

[412] 'Die Hühner und Pfauenzucht,' 1827, s. 11.

[413] 'Poultry Chronicle,' vol. i. p. 595. Mr. Brent has informed me of the same fact. With respect to the position of the spurs in Dorkings, see 'Cottage Gardener,' Sept. 18th, 1860, p. 380.

[414] Dixon, 'Ornamental and Domestic Poultry,' p. 320.

[415] Mr. Tegetmeier informs me that Game hens have been found so combative, that it is now generally the practice to exhibit each hen in a separate pen.

[416] 'Naturgeschichte Deutschlands,' Band iii. (1793), s. 339, 407.

[417] On the Ornithology of Ceylon in 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. History,' 2nd series, vol. xiv. (1854), p. 63.

[418] I quote Blumenbach on the authority of Mr. Tegetmeier, who gives in 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.,' Nov. 25th, 1856, a very interesting account of the skulls of Polish fowls. Mr. Tegetmeier, not knowing of Bechstein's account, disputed the accuracy of Blumenbach's statement. For Bechstein, see 'Naturgeschichte Deutschlands,' Band iii. (1793), s. 399, note. I may add that at the first exhibition of poultry at the Zoological Gardens, in May, 1845, I saw some fowls, called Friezland fowls, of which the hens were crested, and the cocks were furnished with a comb.

[419] 'Cottage Gardener,' Jan. 3rd, 1860, p. 218.

[420] Mr. Williams, in a paper read before the Dublin Nat. Hist. Soc., quoted in 'Cottage Gardener,' 1856, p. 161.

[421] 'De l'Espèce,' 1859, p. 442. For the occurrence of black-boned fowls in South America, see Roulin, in 'Mém. de l'Acad. des Sciences,' tom. vi. p. 351; and Azara, 'Quadrupèdes du Paraguay,' tom. ii. p. 324. A frizzled fowl sent to me from Madras had black bones.

[422] Mr. Hewitt, in Tegetmeier's 'Poultry Book,' 1866, p. 231.

[423] Dr. Broca, in Brown-Sequard's 'Journal de Phys.,' tom. ii. p. 361.

[424] Dixon's 'Ornamental Poultry,' p. 325.

[425] 'Poultry Chronicle,' vol. i. p. 485. Tegetmeier's 'Poultry Book,' 1866, p. 41. On Cochins grazing, idem, p. 46.

[426] Ferguson on 'Prize Poultry,' p. 187.

[427] Col. Sykes in 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.,' 1832, p. 151. Dr. Hooker's 'Himalayan Journals,' vol. i. p. 314.

[428] See Mr. Tegetmeier's account, with woodcuts, of the skull of Polish fowls, in 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.,' Nov. 25th, 1856. For other references, see Isid. Geoffroy Saint Hilaire, 'Hist. Gén. des Anomalies,' tom. i. p. 287. M. C. Dareste suspects ('Recherches sur les Condicions de la Vie,' &c., Lille, 1863, p. 36) that the protuberance is not formed by the frontal bones, but by the ossification of the dura mater.

[429] 'Naturgeschichte Deutschlands,' Band iii. (1793), s. 400.

[430] The 'Field,' May 11th, 1861. I have received communications to a similar effect from Messrs. Brent and Tegetmeier.

[431] It appears that I have not correctly designated the several groups of vertebræ, for a great authority, Mr. W. K. Parker ('Transact. Zoolog. Soc.,' vol. v. p. 198), specifies 16 cervical, 4 dorsal, 15 lumbar, and 6 caudal vertebræ in this genus. But I have used the same terms in all the following descriptions.

[432] Macgillivray, 'British Birds,' vol. i. p. 25.

[433] It may be well to explain how the calculation has been made for the third column. In G. bankiva the leg-bones are to the wing-bones as 86 : 54, or as (neglecting decimals) 100 : 62;—in Cochins as 311 : 162, or as 100 : 52;—in Dorkings as 557 : 248, or as 100 : 44; and so on for the other breeds. We thus get the series of 62, 52, 44 for the relative-weights of the wing-bones in G. bankiva, Cochins, Dorkings, &c. And now taking 100, instead of 62, for the weight of the wing-bones in G. bankiva, we get, by another rule of three, 83 as the weight of the wing-bones in Cochins; 70 in the Dorkings; and so on for the remainder of the third column in the table.

[434] Mr. Blyth (in 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.,' 2nd series, vol. i., 1848, p. 456) gives 3¼ lb. as the weight of a full-grown male G. bankiva; but from what I have seen of the skins and skeletons of various breeds, I cannot believe that my two specimens of G. bankiva could have weighed so much.

[435] The third column is calculated on the same principle as explained in the previous foot-note, p. 271.

[436] 'Poultry Chronicle' (1854), vol. ii. p.91, and vol. i. p. 330.

[437] Dr. Turral, in 'Bull. Soc. d'Acclimat.,' tom. vii., 1860, p. 541.

[438] Willughby's 'Ornithology,' by Ray, p. 381. This breed is also figured by Albin, in 1734, in his 'Nat. Hist. of Birds,' vol. ii. p. 86.

[439] F. Cuvier, in 'Annales du Muséum,' tom. ix. p. 128, says that moulting and incubation alone stop these ducks laying. Mr. B. P. Brent makes a similar remark in the 'Poultry Chronicle,' 1855, vol. iii. p. 512.

[440] Rev. E. S. Dixon, 'Ornamental and Domestic Poultry' (1848), p. 117. Mr. B. P. Brent, in 'Poultry Chronicle,' vol. iii., 1855, p. 512.

[441] Crawfurd on the 'Relation of Domesticated Animals to Civilisation,' read before the Brit. Assoc. at Oxford, 1860.

[442] Dureau de la Malle, in 'Annales des Sciences Nat.,' tom. xvii. p. 164; and tom. xxi. p. 55. Rev. E. S. Dixon, 'Ornamental Poultry,' p. 118. Tame ducks were not known in Aristotle's time, as remarked by Volz, in his 'Beiträge zur Kulturgeschichte,' 1852, s. 78.

[443] I quote this account from 'Die Enten, Schwanen-zucht,' Ulm, 1828, s. 143. See Audubon's 'Ornithological Biography,' vol. iii. p. 168, on the taming of ducks on the Mississippi. For the same fact in England, see Mr. Waterton, in Loudon's 'Mag. of Nat. Hist.,' vol. viii., 1835, p. 542; and Mr. St. John, 'Wild Sports and Nat. Hist. of the Highlands,' 1846, p. 129.

[444] Mr. E. Hewitt, in 'Journal of Horticulture,' 1862, p. 773; and 1863, p. 39.

[445] I have met with several statements on the fertility of the several breeds when crossed. Mr. Yarrell assured me that Call and common ducks are perfectly fertile together. I crossed Hook-billed and common ducks, and a Penguin and Labrador, and the crossed ducks were quite fertile, though they were not bred inter se, so that the experiment was not fully tried. Some half-bred Penguins and Labradors were again crossed with Penguins, and subsequently bred by me inter se, and they were extremely fertile.

[446] 'Poultry Chronicle,' 1855, vol. iii. p. 512.

[447] 'Journal of the Indian Archipelago,' vol. v. p. 334.

[448] 'The Zoologist,' vols. vii., viii. (1849-1850), p. 2353.