55 Spencer and Gillen, loc. cit.

56 Journal of American Folklore, xvii, 4.

57 Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 530 (the child is the returned soul of an ancestor).

58 Codrington, Melanesians, p. 154 (a spirit child enters a woman); cf. Journal of the American Oriental Society, viii, 297 (the Nusairi), and Lyde, in Curtiss, Primitive Semitic Religion To-day, p. 115; Hartland, Primitive Paternity, i, 50, and chap. 3 passim.

59 A. B. Ellis, The Eẃe-speaking Peoples, p. 15; The Tshi-speaking Peoples, p. 18.

60 For the belief that the soul of the child comes from the shades see Journal of American Folklore, xiv, 83. Further, Tylor, Primitive Culture, chap. xii; Lang, in article cited above; Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, ii. 96.

61 Possibly a survival of the theory is to be recognized in the custom, prevalent among some peoples, of naming a male child after his grandfather; examples are given in Gray, Hebrew Proper Names, p. 2 f. All such theories appear to rest on a dim conception of the vital solidarity of the tribe or clan—the vital force is held to be transmissible; cf. the idea of mana, a force inherent in things.

62 Gen. ii, 7; cf. Ezek. xxxvii, 10.

63 Timæus, 34 f.

64 De Sen. 21, 77; Tusc. Disp. v, 13, 38.

65 The term 'sacred' in early thought has no ethical significance; it involves only the idea that an object is imbued with some superhuman quality, and is therefore dangerous and not to be touched.

66 On modes of burial, see article "Funérailles" in La Grande Encyclopédie. Other considerations, however (hygienic, for example), may have had influence on the treatment of corpses.

67 In the Talmud the books of the Sacred Scriptures are said to "defile the hands," that is, they are taboo (Yadaim, Mishna, 3, 5).

68 The lower animals also are sometimes credited with more than one soul: so the bear among the Sioux (Charlevoix, Nouvelle France, vi, 28; Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes of the United States, iii, 229).

69 Williams, Fiji, i, 241; Tylor, Primitive Culture, i, 434, cf. Brinton, Lenâpé, p. 69; Cross, in Journal of the American Oriental Society, iv, 310 (Karens); W. Ellis, Madagascar, i, 393; A. B. Ellis, The Eẃe-speaking Peoples, p. 114, and The Tshi-speaking Peoples, p. 149 ff.; Kingsley, West African Studies, p. 200 ff.; Skeat, Malay Magic, p. 50.

70 Journal of the American Oriental Society, iv, 310.

71 Cf. Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 530.

72 See below, § 46 ff.

73 See Maspero (1897), Dawn of Civilization, p. 108 f.; W. M. Müller in Encyclopædia Biblica, article "Egypt"; Petrie, Religion and Conscience in Ancient Egypt, pp. 30 ff., 48 ff.; Breasted, History of Egypt, p. 63 f.; Erman, Handbook of Egyptian Religion, pp. 86 f., 108; Wiedemann, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians, p. 234 ff.

74 R. H. Charles in his Eschatology, Hebrew, Jewish, and Christian, p. 153, holds that the Hebrews made a distinction between soul and spirit (the former being "living" only when the latter is present), and that the recognition of this distinction is necessary for the understanding of the Old Testament conception of immortality. His discussion is valuable if not convincing.

75 1 Kings xxii, 21 f.

76 For the New Testament usage see 1 Cor. vi, 17; 2 Cor. iv, 21; xii, 18; Luke ix, 53 (in some MSS.); Rev. xix, 10; John vi, 63. Cf. Grimm, Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament, ed. J. H. Thayer, s. vv. pneuma and psyche.

77 Cf. Rohde, Psyche, 3d ed., i, 45 n.; ii, 141, n. 2.

78 In philosophical thought the two are sometimes distinguished: the anima is the principle of life, and the animus of thinking mind (Lucretius, iii, 94-141).

79 A curious resemblance to the cult of the 'genius' is found in the Eẃe (Dahomi) custom of consecrating a man's birthday to his "indwelling spirit" (A. B. Ellis, The Eẃe-speaking Peoples, 105). Compare Horace's designation of the genius as 'naturae deus humanae' (Ep. ii, 2, 188), and Servius on Verg., Georg. i, 302.

80 So in Plato and Aristotle, and in Brahmanism.

81 The evidence for this belief is found in hundreds of books that record observations of savage ideas, and it is unnecessary to cite particular examples.

82 Ellis, The Eẃe-speaking Peoples, p. 108. Cf. Hinde, The Last of the Masai, p. 99.

83 D. Macdonald, Africana, i, 58 f.

84 Journal of the Anthropological Institute, x, 283; cf. Codrington, Melanesians, p. 277.

85 Rink, Tales of the Eskimo, p. 36.

86 See above, § 41.

87 Thomas Williams, Fiji, i, 244. Cf. W. Ellis, Polynesian Researches, i, 303.

88 Gill, Myths and Songs from the South Pacific, p. 160.

89 Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xix, 118 f.

90 Jarves, History of the Sandwich Islands, p. 42. Cf. Tylor, Primitive Culture, 2d ed., ii, 22 f., and Codrington, The Melanesians p. 256 ff.

91 Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 530 f.

92 Kingsley, Travels, p. 444.

93 Polynesian Researches, p. 218.

94 Maspero, Dawn of Civilization, pp. 112, 185.

95 Tailtiriya Brahmana, 3, 11, 8, 5; Çatapatha Brahmana, 12, 9, 3, 12. Cf. Bloomfield, Religion of the Veda, p. 253.

96 The same remark holds of later conceptions of the departed soul and of deities.

97 Mariner, Tonga, pp. 328, 343. Gods also die, as in the Egyptian religious creed (Maspero, Dawn of Civilization, p. 111), in Greek myths and folk-beliefs (the grave of Zeus, etc.), and in the Norse myth of the combat of the gods with the giants.

98 Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, chap. xxv.

99 1 Sam. xxvii, 11 f.; Ezek. xxxii, 17 f.; Isa. xiv, 9 f. Eccl. iii, 19 f., ix, 5, 6, 10, which are sometimes cited in support of the opposite opinion, belong not to the Jewish popular belief, but to a late academic system which is colored by Greek skeptical philosophy. All other late Jewish books (Apocrypha, New Testament, Talmud) assume the continued existence of the soul in the other world.

100 See above, § 43.

101 Hopkins, Religions of India, pp. 130, 143 ff., 396; Rhys Davids, Buddhism, p. 111 ff.; Spiegel, Eranische Alterthiunskunde, ii, 161 ff.; Wiedemann, Egyptian Doctrine of Immortality; De Groot, Religion of the Chinese, chap. iii.

102 On the Homeric usage see Rohde, Psyche, as cited above, § 43.

103 Several early Christian writers (Tatian, Address to the Greeks, 13; Justin, Trypho, cap. vi) held that souls are naturally mortal, but these views did not affect the general Christian position.

104 Such as Ezek. xviii, 4. This view appears in Clementine Homilies, vii, 1.

105 Cf. W. R. Alger, Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future Life; Harvard Ingersoll Lectures on "The Immortality of Man."

106 Cf. H. Spencer, Principles of Sociology, i, chap. xv; article "Blest, abode of the," in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

107 Cf. Tylor, Primitive Culture, chap. xii f.

108 Cf. Hartland, Primitive Paternity, i, 254, and chap. iii.

109 In Primitive Culture, chap. xii.

110 In La survivance de l'âme, passim.

111 See also the discussion of the subject in Alger, op. cit. (in § 53), p. 62 f. This work contains a bibliography of the future state (by Ezra Abbot) substantially complete up to the year 1862.

112 Cf. Saussaye, Religion of the Teutons, p. 295 f.

113 M. Kingsley, Studies, p. 122; Travels, p. 445.

114 Haddon, Head-hunters, p. 179 ff.

115 Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, Index, s.v. Alcheringa; id., Northern Tribes of Central Australia, p. 271.

116 A. B. Ellis, Yoruba, p. 128.

117 Cf. especially the Central Australian conception.

118 It is involved in all monistic systems. It appears also to be silently made in the Old Testament: the lower animals, like man, are vivified by the "breath of God" (Ps. civ, 29, 30; cf. Gen. ii, 7; vii, 22), and are destroyed in the flood because of the wickedness of man (Gen. vi, 5-7); cf. also Rom. viii, 22.

119 So in the Upanishads (but not in the poetic Veda); see Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 227; Bloomfield, Religion of the Veda, p. 257. Tylor (Primitive Culture, ii, 18) points out that in this conception we have a suggestion of the theory of development in organic life.

120 So the Central Australians (Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, p. 514), the Californian Maidu (Dixon, The Northern Maidu, p. 246). Cf. the cases in which precautions are taken against a ghost's entering its old earthly abode.

121 Rig-Veda, 15.

122 Spencer and Gillen, loc. cit. and p. 516 f.

123 Probably the Greek ker (κήρ) and the Teutonic 'nightmare,' French cauchemar (mara, an incubus, or succuba), belong in this class of malefic ghosts.

124 See below, § 92.

125 Steinmetz, Ethnologische Studien zur ersten Entwicklung der Strafe, i, 141 ff.

126 For West Africa see above, § 43, n. 2; for the Norse fylgja ('follower') cf. Saussaye, Religion of the Teutons, p. 292 ff.

127 § 38, n. 2.

128 A transitional stage is marked by the theory, in a polypsychic system, that one soul remains near the body while another goes to the distant land.

129 So, perhaps, among the eastern Polynesians (W. Ellis, Polynesian Researches, i, 303) and the Navahos (Matthews, Navaho Legends, p. 38).

130 Maspero, Dawn of Civilization, chap. iii, 183 ff.; Teit, Thompson River Indians, p. 85; Rink, Tales of the Eskimo, p. 40.

131 Odyssey, xi (by the encircling Okeanos); Williams, Fiji, p. 192; Brinton, Myths of the New World, p. 288 f.; Saussaye, Religion of the Teutons, p. 290; Rig-Veda, x, 63, 10; ix, 41, 2.

132 Breasted, History of Egypt, p. 65; Charon; Saussaye, op. cit., p. 290; Rohde, Psyche, 3d ed., i, 306. For the story given by Procopius (De Bell. Goth. iv, 20) see Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii, 64 f.

133 Saussaye, op. cit., p. 291.

134 Rig-Veda, x, 154, 4, 5; Lister in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxi, 51 (moon). Cf. Breasted, History of Egypt, p. 64; Hopkins, Religions of India, pp. 129, 206; Brinton, Myths of the New World, p. 284 ff.; Müller, Amerikanische Urreligionen, i, 288 ff.; Saussaye, op. cit., p. 291; Spencer, Principles of Sociology, i, 232 f.

135 Matthews, Navaho Legends, p. 185 f.; Teit, Thompson River Indians, p. 78.

136 Turner, Samoa, p. 257; Lawes (on New Guinea), in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, viii, 371; Callaway, Zulu Nursery Tales, p. 316; Matthews, Navaho Legends, p. 215; Rink, Tales of the Eskimo, p. 37; Sir G. S. Robertson, The Kafirs of the Hindu-Kush, p. 380 f.

137 Æneid, vi.

138 Odyssey, xi, 489; Isa. xxxviii, 10 ff.; Prov. iii, 16, etc.

139 1 Sam. xxviii, 14; Ezek. xxxii, 19-32; Isa. xiv, 9-15; xxxviii, 18. For the early Babylonian conception of the Underworld see the Descent of Ishtar (in Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, chap. xxv); S. H. Langdon, "Babylonian Eschatology," in Essays in Modern Theology and Related Subjects (the C. A. Briggs Memorial).

140 Breasted, History of Egypt, p. 175.

141 Cf. Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii, 83 ff.

142 Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia; Callaway, Amazulus, pp. 12, 151 f.; W. Ellis, Madagascar, i, 393 (cf. J. Sibree, Madagascar, p. 312); A. B. Ellis, The Eẃe, p. 107 f., and The Tshi, p. 156 ff.; M. Kingsley, Travels, pp. 461, 480; R. B. Dixon, The Shasta, p. 469.

143 Williams, Fiji, p. 194.

144 Ezek. xxxii, 23, 27; Isa. xiv, 15.

145 Jastrow, op. cit., p. 601; Ezek. xxxii.

146 Iliad, xxiii, 71.

147 Jastrow, op. cit., p. 602; Iliad, i, 3 ff.; 2 Sam. xxi, 10; Prov. xxx, 17.

148 Hence special desire for sons, who were the natural persons to perform funeral rites for fathers.

149 So also Plato, Gorgias, 80 (524).

150 Hesiod, Works and Days, 110.

151 Marillier, La survivance de l'âme.

152 W. Ellis, Polynesian Researches, chap. ix.

153 Marillier, op. cit.

154 Smith, Virginia, p. 36.

155 Will and Spinden, The Mandans (Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archæology and Ethnology, Harvard University), p. 133.

156 So among the Betsileos and the Zulus (Marillier, op. cit.)

157 So in Madagascar. Cf. Ezek. xxxii, 18 ff.; Isa. xiv, 4 ff.

158 Journal of the American Oriental Society, iv, 312 f.

159 S. St. John, The Far East, 2d ed., i, 182 f.; cf., i, 184.

160 Marillier, op. cit. Here suicide appears to be regarded as a heroic act, and the women in question perish in doing a service to the tribe.

161 Dixon, The Northern Maidu, p. 261; Westermarck, Moral Ideas, Index, s. v. Future Life; Hobhouse, Morals in Evolution, ii, 271 ff.; Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii, 83 ff.

162 Castrén, Finnische Mythologie, p. 126; Turner, Samoa, p. 259; Lawes, "New Guinea," in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, viii, 370; Rochas, Nouvelle Calédonie (Bulletin de la Société d'anthropologie, 1860), p. 280; Lister, Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxi, 51; Dixon, op. cit., p. 262; Müller, Amerikanische Urreligionen, p. 289 (Brazil).

163 See Westermarck, loc. cit.

164 Hawkins, Creek Country, p. 80.

165 For details on this point see L. Marillier, La survivance de l'âme.

166 Williams and Calvert, Fiji, p. 193 f.

167 Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1842, p. 172, and 1852, p. 211; Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 530 f.

168 Sepulchral inscriptions of Tabnit and Eshmunazar, and the inscriptions of Antipatros (Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum, vol. i, part i, p. 9 ff.; Lidzbarski, Handbuch der nordsemitischen Epigraphik, part ii, pl. iv, 1, 2; part i, p. 117; Rawlinson, Phœnicia, p. 394 f.).

169 Breasted, Egypt, p. 173 ff.; Bloomfield, Religion of the Veda, p. 252; Hopkins, Religions of India, pp. 336, 380, 443; Texts of Taoism, ed. J. Legge, ii, 6 f. (in Sacred Books of the East, vol. 40); Legge, Religions of China, p. 82; De Groot, Religion of the Chinese, pp. 6, 25, 54, 70 ff., 117; Spiegel, Eranische Alterthumskunde, ii, 158 ff.; Plato, Republic, 614 (story of Er); Book of Enoch passim.

170 W. Ellis, Polynesian Researches, chap. xv; Will and Spinden, The Mandans, p. 133; Dixon, The Northern Maidu, p. 261; Rig-Veda, i, 356; vii, 104. Cf. article "Blest, abode of the" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

171 Tartarus is as far below Hades as the earth is below the sky (Iliad, viii, 16).

172 Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 379 ff.

173 Wiedemann, Egyptian Doctrine of Immortality, p. 50 f.; Maspero, Dawn of Civilization, p. 183 ff.; Breasted, History of Egypt, pp. 64, 173 ff. Different conceptions, however, appear in different stages of eschatological thought. Probably the older view was that all the dead descended to the Underworld. According to another view, the good ascended to heaven and accompanied the sun on his daily voyage over the heavenly ocean.

174 Revue archéologique, 1903, and Reinach, Orpheus (Eng. tr.), p. 88 f.

175 Gorgias, 523-526; Republic, x, 614; Laws, x, 904 f.; Phædo, 113 f.

176 Isa. lxv, 17-21; lxvi, 24; Enoch, x, 12-22.

177 Enoch, xxii.

178 Enoch, civ, 6; xcix, 11.

179 Secrets of Enoch, chaps. vii-x. For the third heaven cf. 2 Cor. xii, 2-4. Varro also (quoted in Augustine, De Civ. Dei, vii, 6) assigned the souls of the dead to a celestial space beneath the abode of the gods.

180 Matt. xxv, 46; 1 Thess. iv, 17; 2 Pet. ii, 4; iii, 13; Rev. xx, 15; xxi, 1; 2 Cor. xii, 2-4.

181 See, for example, the Revelation of the Monk of Evesham, Eng. tr. by V. Paget (New York, 1909).

182 Republic, x, 614.

183 Herzog-Hauck, Real-Encyklopädie, Index, s.v. Fegfeuer; Jewish Encyclopedia, article "Purgatory."

184 American Indians (H. C. Yarrow, Introduction to the Study of Mortuary Customs among the North American Indians, p. 5 ff.); Egypt (Wilkinson, The Ancient Egyptians, chap. x); see article "Funérailles" in La Grande Encyclopédie. Grant Allen, in The Evolution of the Idea of God, chap. iii, connects the idea of bodily resurrection with the custom of inhumation and the idea of immortality with cremation, but this view is not borne out by known facts.

185 Frazer, Golden Bough, 2nd ed., i, 262, 278.

186 The doctrine of reincarnation in India followed on that of Hades, and stood in a certain opposition to it. Cf. Hopkins, Religions of India, pp. 204 ff., 530 n. 3; Bloomfield, Religion of the Veda, pp. 211, 252 ff.

187 Zoroastrian Studies, p. 236. Prexaspes says that "if the dead rise again" Smerdis maybe the son of Cyrus. He may mean that this is not probable. Smerdis, he would in that case say, is certainly dead, and this pretender can be the son of Cyrus only in case the dead come to life.

188 Diogenes Laertius in Müller, Fragmenta Historicorum Gracorum, i, 289; cf. Plutarch, Isis and Osiris, 47, and Herodotus, i, 131-140. See Spiegel, Eranische Alterthumskunde, ii 158 ff.

189 Occasional reincarnation in human form is found elsewhere. The Mazdeans made it universal.

190 There is no certain or probable reference to it in the Old Testament before this. Ezek. xxxvii, 1-14, is obviously a figurative prediction of national (not individual) resuscitation, and the obscure passage Isa. xxvi, 19 seems to refer to the reëstablishment of the nation, and in any case is not earlier than the fourth century B.C. and may be later.

191 Dan. xii; 2 Macc. vii, 14; Enoch, xci, 10; xxii.

192 1 Cor. xv, 23; Rom. vi, 4; viii, 11; John vi, 54.

193 Acts xxiv, 15; John v, 28 f.