The Project Gutenberg e-Book of Introduction to the History of Religions by Crawford Howell Toy, 'Handbooks on the History of Religions, Volume 4'

334 Cf. Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., i, 224. For the Old Testament Song of Songs see Budde's commentary on that book.

335 Sacrifices to local or other deities formed a part of marriage ceremonies in Greece and Rome; Hera and Juno were guardians of the sanctity of marriage. No religious ceremony in connection with marriage is mentioned in the Old Testament; a trace of such a ceremony occurs in the book of Tobit (vii, 13).

336 The Mystic Rose, p. 322, etc.

337 Hughes, Dictionary of Islam, article "Marriage."

338 The danger might continue into early childhood and have to be guarded against; for a Greek instance see Gardner and Jevons, Greek Antiquities, p. 299.

339 For details see Ploss, Das Kind, and works on antiquities, Hebrew, Greek, and Roman.

340 Cf. Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, i, 72 ff.; iv, 244 ff.

341 Dixon, The Northern Maidu, p. 228 ff.; and The Shasta, p. 453 ff.; Rivers, The Todas, p. 313 ff.; Hollis, The Nandi, p. 64 f.; D. Kidd, Savage Childhood, p. 7; Lev. xii; article "Birth" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

342 See above, § 55 f.

343 Tylor (Primitive Culture, ii, 3 ff.) suggests that such an idea may have been supposed to account for the general resemblance between parents and children.

344 R. H. Nassau, Fetichism in West Africa, p. 212.

345 Haddon, Head-hunters, p. 353 ff.

346 Turner, Samoa, chap. iii. In some Christian communities the saint on whose festival day a child is born is adopted as the child's patron saint. In the higher ancient religions there were religious observances in connection with the birth and rearing of children, special divine care being sought; see, for example, the elaborate Roman apparatus of divine guardians.

347 Dixon, The Northern Maidu, p. 231; H. Webster, Primitive Secret Societies, p. 40 f.

348 For methods of burial see article "Funérailles" in La Grande Encyclopédie.

349 Robertson, The Kafirs, chap. xxxiii; Batchelor, The Ainu, chap. xlviii (the goddess of fire is asked to take charge of the spirit of the deceased).

350 The food and drink (of which only the soul is supposed to be consumed by the deceased) are often utilized by the surviving friends; such funeral feasts have played a considerable part in religious history and survive in some quarters to the present day.

351 A. B. Ellis, The Eẃe (Dahomi), chap. viii; A. G. Leonard, The Lower Niger and its Tribes, p. 160 f.; Herodotus, iv, 71 f. (Scythians); v, 5 (Thracians). Cf. the Greek Anthesteria and the Roman Parentalia.

352 Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxi, 121.

353 Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, p. 498.

354 For elaborate Sioux ceremonies on the death of a child see Miss Fletcher, Indian Ceremonies (the Shadow or Ghost Lodge).

355 On the disposal of the corpse, by inhumation, cremation, exposure, etc., see article "Funérailles" cited above; O. Schrader, in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, ii, 16 ff.

356 This may be in part a hygienic precaution.

357 Haddon, Head-hunters, p. 91. Cf. G. L. Kittredge, "Disenchantment by Decapitation," in Journal of American Folklore, vol. xviii, no. 68 (January, 1905).

358 De Groot, Religion of the Chinese, chap. iii.

359 Cf. Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, chap. xxxvii ff.; Saussaye, Science of Religion (Eng. tr.), chap. xviii; and the references given in these works.

360 See below, on removal of taboos.

361 Fraser, Golden Bough, 2d ed., i, 306 f.

362 Cf. Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, index, s.v. Homicide.

363 See below, § 201; cf. the Athenian Anthesteria and Thargelia.

364 In Ex. iv, 24 f., Yahweh is about to kill Moses, apparently for neglecting a ritual act.

365 Examples in Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii, 429 ff.; cf. Knox, Religion in Japan, p. 39.

366 See the practices described by Rivers, in The Todas, Index, s.vv. Bathing, Purification.

367 Schneckenburger, Proselytentaufe; article "Proselyten" in Herzog, Real-Encyklopädie.

368 In the New Testament baptism is said to be "for the remission of sins" (Acts ii, 38), and is called "bath of regeneration" (Tit. iii, 3); a quasi-magical power is attributed to it in 1 Cor. xv, 29.

369 For the Mazdean use of urine see Vendidad, Fargard v, 160; xvi, 27, etc.; for use of buffalo's dung, Rivers, The Todas, pp. 32, 173 f., etc.

370 Rivers, op. cit., p. 367.

371 Compare, however, the use of natural pigments for decorative and religious purposes; see above, § 115 ff.

372 The Toda ceremony of burning a woman's hand in the fifth month of pregnancy, and a child's hand on the occasion of a funeral (Rivers, The Todas, pp. 315, 374), may be purificatory, but this is not clear; cf. Frazer, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xi.

373 Lev. xv, 30; xvi, 15 ff.

374 Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 196.

375 Gruppe, Griechische Mythologie, p. 888 ff,; Jevons, Introduction to the History of Religion, p. 375; Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion, p. 150 ff.

377 Fowler, Roman Festivals, Index, s.v.

378 The native name of the festival, puskita (busk), is said to mean 'a fast,' but the ceremonies are largely purificatory; Gatschet, Migration Legend of the Creeks, p. 177 ff.

379 Rivers, The Todas, p. 300 ff.

380 Odyssey, iv, 730.

381 Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, ii, 352; Dixon, The Northern Maidu, p. 269 f.

382 H. Webster, Primitive Secret Societies, chap. ix; G. Brown, Melanesians and Polynesians, pp. 60-78.

383 Lev. viii; cf. Copleston, Buddhism, chap. xviii; Lippert, Priesterthum (see references in the headings to the chapters).

384 So in some Christian bodies.

385 The details are given at great length by Westermarck, op. cit., chap. xxxvii, with references to authorities.

386 It is by nature nonsacred, and so remains so long as it has not been made sacred by the special ceremonies that abound in savage communities. We have here the germ of the dualistic conception of man's constitution—the antagonism between spirit and body.

387 Hollis, The Nandi, pp. 58, 92.

388 Cf. the danger to a common man of eating a chief's food; see Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., i, 321 f.

389 Frazer, In Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xv, 94, quoted by Westermarck.

390 H. Spencer, Principles of Sociology, i, § 140.

391 In Christianity in connection with the eucharistic meal and other observances.

392 The true principle is stated in Isa. lviii, 3 ff.

393 Cf. article "Calendar" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

394 For a series of dance seasons see Dixon, The Northern Maidu, p. 283 ff.; cf. Basset, in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, ii, 513.

395 Hollis, The Nandi, p. 94 ff.

396 Hollis, The Masai, Index, s.v. Moon.

397 Rivers, The Todas, Index, s.v. Moon.

398 Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, ii, 835.

399 1 Sam. xx, 6 (clan festival); Isa. i, 13; Numb. xxviii, 11.

400 Hastings, op. cit., ii, 555.

401 Lev. xxiii, 33; Ps. lxxxi, 4 [3]. On the Sabbath as perhaps full-moon day, see below, § 608.

402 Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 449 ff.

403 Buckley, in Saussaye's Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte, 2d ed., p. 83.

404 Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 677 ff.

405 Lev. xxiii, 23 f.; Numb. xxix, 1 ff. The Hebrew text of Ezek. xl, 1, makes the year begin on the tenth day of some month unnamed; but the Hebrew is probably to be corrected after the Greek. Cf. Nowack, Hebräische Archäologie, ii, 158 f.

406 Fowler, Roman Festivals, p. 278.

407 Cf. A. Mommsen, Feste der Stadt Athen (1898), p. 55.

408 J. W. Fewkes, "The Winter Solstice Ceremony at Walpi" (in The American Anthropologist, xi).

409 Prescott, Peru, i, 104, 127.

410 A Saracen cult is described in Nili opera quædam (Paris, 1639), pp. 28, 117.

411 Hollis, The Nandi, p. 100; Rivers, The Todas, p. 593 ff.; cf. Dorsey, The Skidi Pawnee, p. xviii f.; Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, iii, 132 f.

412 For some fasting observances in astral cults see Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, ii, 312 f.

413 As food is the most pressing need.

414 Judg. ix, 27; Neh. viii, 10.

415 A. Mommsen, Feste der Stadt Athen (1898), Index, s.vv.; Gardner and Jevons, Greek Antiquities, pp. 287 f., 290, 292.

416 Fowler, Roman Festivals, pp. 95 ff., 157 ff., 268 ff., 114, 124 ff., 241 ff.; cf. article "Mars" in Roscher, Lexikon, col. 2416 f.

417 Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 453 ff.

418 Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., iii, 78 f.

419 A Babylonian festival of this sort (Sakea) is mentioned by Athenæus (in Deipnosophistæ, xiv, 639) on the authority of Berosus, and "Sakea" has been identified with "zakmuk," the Babylonian New Year's Day (cf. the story in Esth. vi); but the details of the festival and of the Persian Sakæa (Strabo, xi, 8) are obscure.

421 see above, § 128.

422 Hollis, The Nandi, p. 46 f.

423 Gatschet, Migration Legend of the Creeks, p. 177 ff.

424 Cf. the ceremony of the pharmakos in the festival of the Thargelia (Miss Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion, p. 95 ff.).

425 Frazer, Golden Bough 2d ed., ii, 337 ff.

426 This period has been generally held to be calendary. Its calendary reality is denied by Legge (in Recueil des travaux, xxxi) and Foucart (in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, article "Calendar [Egyptian]").

427 A noteworthy instance of this persistence appears in the history of the Bene-Israel, a body of Jews living in the Bombay Presidency (article "Bene-Israel" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics); they preserve the Jewish religious festivals, but under Indian names.

428 See above, §§ 4, 7.

429 The word "fetish" (from Portuguese feitiço, 'artificial', then 'idol, charm,'), devised originally as a name of charms used by the natives of the West African coast, is often employed as a general name for early religious practices. Its proper use is in the sense of a dead object, as a piece of clay or a twig, in which, it is held, a spirit dwells. The fetish is often practically a god, often a household god; the interesting thing about it is that the spirit, generally a tutelary spirit, can enter the object or depart at will, may be brought in by appropriate ceremonies, and may be dismissed when it is no longer considered useful.

430 Algonkin manito or manitu (W. Jones, in Journal of American Folklore, xviii, 190); Iroquois orenda; Siouan wakonda; Chickasa hullo (Journal of American Folklore, xx, 57); cf. the Masai n'gai, 'the unknown, incomprehensible' (Hinde, The Last of the Masai, p. 99), connected with storms and the telegraph. Other names perhaps exist.

431 Codrington, The Melanesians, Index, s.v. Mana.

432 W. Jones, op. cit.

433 It has therefore been compared to the modern idea of force as inherent in matter.

434 The American manitu is an appellation of a personal supernatural being. The Siouan wakonda is invoked in prayer (Miss Fletcher, The Tree in the Dakotan Group).

435 Judg. xiv, 19; 1 Sam. xix, 23; Ezek. xxxix, 29. Fury also is said to be poured out. Cf. Mark v, 30, where power (δύναμις) is said to go out of Jesus.

436 Cf. the Greek energeia and entelecheia.

437 Cf. I. King, The Development of Religion, chap. vi.

438 Examples in J. H. King, The Supernatural. Cf. T. S. Knowlson, Origins of Popular Superstitions, etc.; T. Keightley, Fairy Mythology.

439 Cf. Tylor, Primitive Culture, 3d ed., ii, 229 ff.: article "Animals" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

440 This may have been simply the transference to them of human custom, or it may also have been suggested by the obvious social organization of such animals as bees, ants, goats, deer, monkeys.

441 Turner, Samoa, pp. 21, 26.

442 Batchelor, The Ainu, p. 27.

443 W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, (new ed., see p. 106) p. 128 f.

444 A. Lang, Myth, Ritual, and Religion, i, 117 ff.

445 Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, pp. 389, 401. Some Australians believed in an original gradual transformation of animals and plants into human beings.

446 On the conception of animals as ancestors see below, § 449 f.

447 A demon may be defined as a supernatural being with whom, for various reasons, men have not formed friendly relations. Cf. W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, new ed., p. 119 ff., on the Arabian jinn; De Groot, Religion of the Chinese, p. 13 ff., for the Chinese belief in demonic animals. On the origin, names, and functions of demons and on exorcismal ceremonies connected with them see below, § 690 ff., and above, § 138 ff.

448 So the Eskimo, the Ainu, the Redmen, and modern Arabs in Africa; many other instances are cited by Frazer in his Golden Bough, 2d ed., ii, 386 ff.

449 Examples are found in many folk-stories of savages everywhere.

450 For other sacred animals see N. W. Thomas, article "Animals" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

451 Turner, Samoa, p. 238.

452 Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., ii, 430 ff.; Thomas, article "Animals" cited above; Shortland, Traditions of New Zealand, iv; Marsden, Sumatra, p. 292; Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes, i, 34; v, 652; Waitz, Anthropologie, iii, 190; Callaway, Amazulus, p. 196; A. B. Ellis, The Tshi, p. 150; Mouhot, Indo-China, i, 252; J. Wasiljev, Heidnische Gebräuche der Wotyaks, pp. 26, 78, etc.; G. de la Vega, Comentarios Reales, bk. i, chap. ix, etc. (Peru); Miss Kingsley, Travels, p. 492.

453 Turner, op. cit., p. 242; Castrén, Finnische Mythologie, pp. 106, 160, 189, etc.; Parkman, Jesuits in North America (1906), pp. 61 f., 66; Brinton, Myths of the New World, pp. 3, 105, 127, 161, 175, 272; cf. Acosta, Historia de las Indias, bk. v, chap. iv.

454 So Zeus and bull, Artemis and bear, Aphrodite and dove, and many other examples. In such cases it is generally useless to try to discover a resemblance between the character of the god and that of the associated animal. There is simply, as a rule, a coalescence of cults, or an absorption of the earlier cult in the later.

455 The particular conditions that induced this cult in Egypt escape us. See the works on Egyptian religion by Maspero, Wiedemann, Erman, Steindorff, and others.

456 On the curious attitude of medieval Europe toward animals as legally responsible beings see E. P. Evans, The Criminal Prosecution and Capital Punishment of Animals.

457 Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, chap. x. Two superhuman creators are said to have transformed themselves into lizards (ibid. p. 389 ff.).

458 Batchelor, The Ainu, p. 35 ff.

459 Matthews, Navaho Legends, pp. 80, 223; Dixon, The Northern Maidu, p. 263.

460 Brinton, Myths of the New World, p. 269; cf. article "Animals" in Hastings, Encyclopædia Of Religion and Ethics.

461 See above, § 253, for the Egyptian cult.

462 References to Stow's Native Races of South Africa and Merensky's Beiträge are given in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, i, 522.

463 Cushing, in The Century Magazine, 1883; Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii, 243 f.

464 Crooke, Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India, ii, 213.

465 Hopkins, Religions of India, pp. 527, 539; Crooke, op. cit.; Fewkes, "The Winter Solstice Ceremony at Walpi," p. 17 ff.

466 For a fanciful connection between the sun-myth and the spider see Frobenius, Childhood of Man, chap. xxiii.

467 A somewhat vague Naga (snake) being of this sort is noted (Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 539). The relation between the Australian supernatural being Bunjil (or Punjil) and the eagle-hawk is not clear. Cf. Howitt, Native Tribes of South-East Australia, Index; Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, Index.

468 See below, § 635 f.

469 A special form of man's relations with animals is considered below under "Totemism."

470 For example, in Sumatra, offerings are made to the "soul of the rice"; there is fear of frightening the rice-spirit, and ceremonies are performed in its honor; see Wilken, Het Animisme bij de Volken van den Indischen Archipel; Kruyt, De Rijstmoeder van den Indischen Archipel, 389. It has been suggested that the prohibition of yeast in the Hebrew mazzot (unleavened bread) festival may have come originally from fear of frightening the spirit of the grain. It may have been, however, merely the retention of an old custom (if the grain was eaten originally without yeast), which later (as sometimes happened in the case of old customs) was made sacred by its age, was adopted into the religious code, and so became obligatory.

471 This conception survives in the expressions "spirit of wine," etc., and Cassio's "invisible spirit of wine" easily passes into a "devil."

472 This distinction is made in a somewhat formal way by the Ainu, a very rude people (Batchelor, The Ainu, chap. xxxiii).