475 Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, pp. 112, 116. Many other plant totems are mentioned by Frazer in his Totemism and Exogamy.

476 Turner, Samoa, pp. 32, 39, 43, 72.

477 This relation was not necessarily totemic—it may have been of a general character, of which totemism is a special form.

478 Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., i, 179 ff.

479 Cf. articles "Asylum" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, and Jewish Encyclopedia.

480 W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, 2d ed., pp. 133, 195; Hopkins, in Journal of the American Oriental Society, xxx (1910), 4, p. 352.

481 Miss Godden, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxvi, 186 ff.

482 W. Crooke, Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India, new ed., ii, 85 ff.; cf. Hopkins, "Mythological Aspects of Trees, etc.," in Journal of the American Oriental Society, September, 1910.

483 Rig-Veda, ix al.; Muir, Original Sanskrit Texts, v; Hillebrandt, Vedische Mythologie, i, 450; Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 112 ff.

484 Spiegel, Eranische Alterthumskunde, ii, 114 ff.; Tiele-Gehrich, Geschichte der Religion im Alterium, ii, ii, p. 234 ff.

485 Mannhardt, Baumkultus and Antike Wald- und Feldkulte; Frazer, Golden Bough, Index, s.v. Corn-spirit.

486 Cf. below, § 751 ff.

487 The connection between such posts and the North-Semitic goddess Ashera is uncertain.

488 Ward, Seal-cylinders of Western Asia.

489 Cf. the suggestion of A. Réville (in his Prolégomènes de l'histoire des religions) that images arose in part from natural woods bearing a fancied resemblance to the human form.

490 Boas, The Kwakiutl; Swanton, "Seattle Totem Pole," in Journal of American Folklore vol. xviii, no. 69 (April, 1905).

491 See below, "Totemism," § 449 f.

492 Crooke, Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India, ii, 115 ff.

493 Pausanias, x, 31, 4; Roscher, Lexikon, article "Meleagros."

494 Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., iii, 391 ff.

495 Gen. iii; cf. Hopkins, in Journal of the American Oriental Society, September, 1910. Whether the golden apples of the Hesperides had the life-giving quality is doubtful.

496 This appears from a comparison of Gen. iii, 3 with ii, 17.

497 Gen. iii, 5, 22.

498 He is, perhaps, a diminished and conventionalized form of the old chaos dragon.

499 On the various names and characters of this cosmic tree see Saussaye, Religion of the Teutons, p. 347 ff.

500 Rig-Veda, x, 81, 4.

501 2 Sam. v, 24.

502 Judg. ix, 37.

503 See below, § 935 ff.

504 This is the case with all spirits that social needs do not force man to give names to.

505 Rhys Davids, Buddhist India, p. 232.

506 See above, § 252 f.

507 Ex. iii, 2 ff.; Deut. xxxiii, 16; Acts vii, 30, 35.

508 See Journal of the American Oriental Society, xxx, 353 f., for possible examples.

509 A list of such titles is given by C. Boetticher in his Baumkultus der Hellenen und Römer, chap. iv.

510 Dionysos is a bull-god as well as a tree-god.

511 Dawn of Civilization, p. 12.

512 Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 533.

513 On the Soma cult see above, § 270.

514 § 271.

515 Lev. xvi.

516 Gruppe, Culte und Mythen; Roscher, Lexikon. Cf. the developed cults of Vishnu and Çiva.

517 On Osiris and Isis see below, § 728 f.

518 Some instances of worship are given in Frazer's Golden Bough, 2d ed., i, 181, 189, 191. Frazer sometimes uses the term 'tree worship' where all that is meant is respect for trees as powerful things.

519 See § 253 ff.

520 See Revue de l'histoire des religions, 1881.

521 So in Central Australia (Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, pp. 123 f., 137).

522 The rock whence came the stones thrown by Deucalion and Pyrrha (the origin of the human race) also gave birth to Agdistis mugitibus editis multis, according to Arnobius, Adversus Nationes, v, 5. Mithra's birth from a rock (Roscher, Lexikon) is perhaps a bit of late poetical or philosophical imagery.

523 For various powers of stones, involving many human interests, see indexes in Tylor's Primitive Culture, Frazer's Golden Bough, and Hartland's Primitive Paternity, s.v. Stone or Stones.

524 Festus, p. 2; see the remarks of Marquardt, Römische Staatsverwaltung; Aust, Religion der Römer, p. 121; and Fowler, Roman Festivals, p. 232 f. On the relation between the lapis and Juppiter Elicius, see Wissowa, Religion und Kultus der Römer, p. 106; cf. Roscher, Lexikon, article "Iuppiter," col. 606 ff.

525 See above, § 97 ff.

526 On processes of capturing a god in order to inclose him in an object, or of transferring a god from one object to another, see W. Crooke, "The Binding of a God," in Folklore, viii.

527 In pre-Islamic Arabia many gods were represented by stones, the stone being generally identified with the deity; so Al-Lât, Dhu ash-Shara (Dusares), and the deities represented by the stones in the Meccan Kaaba.

528 Livy, xxix, 10 f.

529 1 Sam. iv.

530 Head, Historia Numorum, p. 661.

531 Tacitus, Hist. ii, 3; it was conical in shape.

532 Fowler, Roman Festivals p. 230 ff.; cf. above, the "lapis manalis," § 289.

533 Herodian, v, 3, 10.

534 Pausanias, vii, 22. Cf. Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii, 160 ff.

535 H. Spencer, Principles of Sociology, i, 335; Saussaye, Manual of the Science of Religion (Eng. tr.), p. 85 ff.

536 Gen. xxviii, 18; cf. Smith, Religion of the Semites, 2d ed., p. 203 f.

537 Hos. iii, 4.

538 The reference in Jer. ii, 27, Hab. ii, 19 (stones as parents and teachers), seems to be to the cult of foreign deities, represented by images.

539 On the interpretation of the masseba as a phallus or a kteis see below, §§ 400, 406.

540 And so in Assyrian and Arabic.

541 There is no Greek etymology for baitulos, and if it came from without, a Semitic origin is the most probable.

542 Eusebius, Praeparatio Evangelica, i, 10, 18.

543 Hist. Nat., bk. xxxvii, chap. 51.

544 Cf. F. Lenormant, in Revue de l'histoire des religions, iii, 31 ff.; Gruppe, Griechische Mythologie, p. 775 f.

545 For Phœnician customs see Pietschmann, Phönisier, p. 204 ff.

546 Cf. Deut. x, 2; Ex. xxv, 16; 2 Chr. v, 10, where the stone in the ark seems to have become two stone tables on which the decalogue was written by the finger of Yahweh—an example, if the view mentioned above be correct, of the transformation of a thing originally divine in itself into an accessory of a god.

547 Cf. Hughes, Dictionary of Islam, s.v. Kaaba; Wellhausen, Reste arabischen Heidentumes, pp. 99, 171.

548 On the relation between the stone heaps and the Hermes pillars cf. Welcker, Griechische Götterlehre, ii, 455, and Roscher, Lexikon, i, 2, col. 2382. With Hermes as guide of travelers cf. the Egyptian Khem (Min), of Coptos, as protector of wanderers in the desert, and perhaps Eshmun in the Sardinian trilingual inscription (see Roscher, Lexikon, article "Esmun"; Orientalische Studien Nöldeke gewidmet).

549 See below, § 1080.

550 W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, 2d ed., pp. 202, 341; cf. Jevons, Introduction to the History of Religion, chap. xi; article "Altar" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

551 Lev. xvi, 19.

552 For some methods of such introduction see W. Crooke, in Folklore, viii.

553 Herodotus, ii, 44; he identifies Melkart with Herakles.

554 1 Kings, vii, 15-22; Ezek. xl, 49.

555 Perrot and Chipiez, Histoire de l'art, vol. iii; cf. Pletschmann, Phönizier, p. 203 ff.; Rawlinson, Phœnicia, p. 338.

556 Cf. below, § 399 ff.

557 W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, 2d ed., p. 487 ff.

558 Strabo, iii, 5, 5.

559 Those of Solomon's temple are described as being 27 feet in height, and without stairways. Cf. the structures connected with the Hierapolis temple (Lucian, De Syria Dea, 28).

560 Desire for height appears also in the Egyptian pyramid and the Babylonian ziggurat, but both these had means of ascent to the higher levels. Cf. below, § 1085.

561 Maspero, Egyptian Archæology, p. 100 ff.

562 The movement from aniconic to anthropomorphic forms is seen in the image of the Ephesian Artemis, the upper half human, the lower half a pillar (Roscher, Lexikon, i, 1, cols. 588, 595).

563 Examples in Tylor's Primitive Culture, 2d ed., ii, 170 f.; cf. his Early History of Mankind, chap. vi.

564 Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, p. 188, etc.

565 Matthews, Navaho Legends, index, s.v. Mountains; article "Bengal" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics; Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii, 260; Hollis, The Nandi, p. 48.

566 Hopkins, Religions of India, pp. 358 ff., 537, and Journal of the American Oriental Society, September, 1910.

567 On a general relation between gods and local hills see Rivers, The Todas, p. 444.

568 Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 541, 638; cf. Isa. xiv, 13. Many Babylonian temples, considered as abodes of gods, were called "mountains."

569 Hopkins, in Journal of the American Oriental Society, loc. cit., where the mythical mountains of the Mahabharata are described.

570 Iliad viii, 2 al.

571 Bastian, "Vorstellungen von Wasser und Feuer," in Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, i; Tylor, Primitive Culture, 2d ed., ii, 209 ff., 274 ff.; W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, lecture v.

572 Polybius, vii, 9.

573 Num. v.

574 Job vii, 12.

575 Herodotus, vi, 76.

576 Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, x, 179; Bell, Maldive Islands, p. 73.

577 In Titus iii, 5, the reference seems to be to baptism.

578 De Groot, Religion of the Chinese, p. 10 f.; cf. the German Lorelei.

579 Frazer (in Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tylor) sees a river-god in the figure mentioned in Gen. xxxii, 24.

580 Cf. John v, 4 (in some MSS.).

581 This is W. R. Smith's contention in Religion of the Semites, lecture v. See his account of Semitic water-gods in general.

582 Turner, Samoa, p. 345 f. Cf. the Roman lapis manalis; see above, § 136.

583 A large number of examples are given by Frazer in his Golden Bough, 2d ed., i, 81 f., al.

584 Brinton, Myths of the New World, p. 17; Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, p. 189 f.

585 One signification (not a probable one) proposed for the name Yahweh is, 'he who causes (rain) to fall.'

586 Examples of such gods, in Africa, America, and Asia, are given in Tylor's Primitive Culture, ii, 259 ff.

587 Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 99 ff.

588 So in the Secrets of Enoch (ed. R. H. Charles), chaps. iv-vi, the treasuries of rain and dew in the lowest heaven are guarded by angels.

589 Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, Index, s.vv.

590 Matthews, Navaho Legends, p. 37; Dorsey, The Skidi Pawnee, p. 8; Teit, Thompson River Indians, p. 56 f.; R. Taylor, New Zealand and its Inhabitants, p. 130; Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 168, n. 1; Roscher, Lexikon, article "Prometheus." Accounts of the original production or the theft of fire are found in savage mythology the world over; see Frobenius, Childhood of Man, chaps. xxv-xxvii; Seligmann, The Melanesians of British New Guinea, p. 379; Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii, 277 ff.; O. T. Mason, Origins of Invention, chap. iii.

591 So among the Todas (Rivers, The Todas, p. 437) and the Nandi (Hollis, The Nandi, p. 85).

592 On an identification of Agni with fire see Bloomfield, Religion of the Veda, p. 158 ff.

593 See Chap. VI.

594 Shahrastani (12th century), Kitab al-Milal wa'l-Nihal, a sketch of religions and philosophical sects, Moslem and other (Germ. tr. by Haarbrücker, p. 298 f.).

595 Hopkins observes (Religions of India, p. 105) that originally fire (Agni), in distinction from sun and lightning, is the fire of sacrifice. Cf. Bloomfield, Religion of the Veda, p. 157.

596 Rivers, The Todas, p. 437; cf. the ceremony described on page 290 f.

597 A. M. Tozzer, Comparative Study of the Mayas and the Lacandones, p. 133.

598 Prescott, Peru, i, 106 f.

599 Plutarch, Aristides, 20.

600 The Hebrew expression, rendered in the English version "cause to pass through fire," means simply 'devote by fire.'

601 Ex. xix, 18; Ezek. i, 4; Ps. xviii, 9 [8]; Rig-Veda, iii, 26, 7 (Indra).

602 Rivers, The Todas, p. 437. In Gen. i, 3, light appears before the creation of the heavenly bodies.

603 So in Carinthia, the Tyrol, and neighboring districts (Wuttke, Der deutsche Volksaberglaube der Gegenwart, p. 86).

604 Dorsey, The Skidi Pawnee, p. xix.

605 See below, § 662, etc.

606 Ps. xviii, 11 [10]; civ, 3 f.

607 Iliad, xxiii, 194 ff.

608 Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, chap. xviii; Rivers, The Todas, p. 595.

609 W. Matthews, Navaho Legends, pp. 80, 223.

610 Breasted, History of Egypt, p. 55; Taylor, New Zealand, p. 119; Hollis, The Masai, p. 279; cf. Turner, Samoa, p. 283.

611 Teit, Thompson River Indians, p. 55 (the present sun is the daughter of a man sun).

612 See examples in Tylor's Primitive Culture, i, 290 ff.

613 On the position of the sun and moon in the later cults see below, Chap. VI.

614 Teit, op. cit., p. 54.

615 See the elaborate Pawnee history of gods (Dorsey, The Skidi Pawnee).

616 See Chap. VI f.

617 On the genesial (urano-chthonic) conception of the world in Polynesia see Tautain, in Anthropologie, vii (1896).

618 Hollis, The Nandi, p. 113.

619 Tylor, Primitive Culture, i, 363; ii, 262.

620 Ps. xxix, 3; xviii, 14, 15 [13, 14].

621 Iliad, viii, 76 f.; xxi, 198, etc. The thunderbolt of Zeus is said in Hesiod, Theogonia, 140 f., to be forged by the Cyclops.

622 Bastian, Beiträge; H. Spencer, Principles of Sociology and Principles of Ethics; Grant Allen, Evolution of the Idea of God; Waitz-Gerland, Anthropologie der Naturvölker; Lippert, Allgemeine Geschichte des Priesterthums; Tylor, Primitive Culture; Codrington, The Melanesians; Frazer, Golden Bough; Wilken, Handleiding voor de Vergelykende Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië; Steinmetz, Ethnologische Studien zur ersten Entwicklung der Strafe; Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, Index, s.vv. Kings, Man-gods; Religions of Egypt (Maspero, Meyer, Wiedemann, Breasted, Steindorff), Babylonia (Jastrow), India (Barth, Hopkins), China (De Groot), Greece (Gruppe), Rome (Auer), etc.

623 Golden Bough, 2d ed., i, 139 ff.

624 Rivers, The Todas, p. 448.

625 Monier-Williams, Religious Life and Thought in India, p. 259. See the cases mentioned by Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 522 n.

626 For the documents see Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt.