The Project Gutenberg e-Book of Introduction to the History of Religions by Crawford Howell Toy, 'Handbooks on the History of Religions, Volume 4'

627 Rawlinson, Egypt, ii, 40 f., 84; Ed. Meyer, Geschichte des Alten Aegyptens, p. 252.

628 When in a compound name the name of a god stands first, the determinative may refer simply to the god; it is evidence for the man only when it stands immediately before the nondivine element of the royal name. The inscriptions are given in Schrader, Keilinschriftliche Bibliothek, III, i; Thureau-Dangin, Sumerisch-Akkadische Königsinschriften. In the Code of Hammurabi (ca. 2000 B.C.) the king in one place (col. 5, ll. 4, 5) calls himself "the Shamash of Babylon," but this is of course a figure of speech; the code is given him by Shamash, the god of justice, and he assumes to be no less just than the god whom he here represents.

629 For a different view see S. H. Langdon, article "Babylonian Eschatology" in Essays in Modern Theology and Related Subjects (the C. A. Briggs memorial volume).

630 Cf. the Chinese and Japanese views mentioned above. Among the Mongols there seems to be no trace of such a cult (Buckley, in Saussaye, Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte, 2d ed.), but a similar one is found in Tibet in Lamaism.

631 Ex. xxii, 28 [27]. Cursing the deity (that is, the national or the local god) is mentioned several times in the Old Testament. Eli's sons committed this offense (1 Sam. iii, 13, corrected text), and Job feared that his sons might have been guilty of it (Job i, 5, where the old Jewish scribes, causa reverentiae, have changed "curse" into "bless,"—so also in i, 11; ii, 5, 9).

632 Adonis Attis Osiris, p. 15 ff.

635 Ps. lviii, 1 [2]; lxxxii, 1, 6. This last passage, however, is understood in John x, 34 f., to refer to Jewish men. The Hebrew text of Ps. xiv, 7 [6], is corrupt.

636 De Groot, Religion of the Chinese. This is the philosophical form of the dogma. The root of the conception is to be found, doubtless, in the old (savage) view that the chief of the tribe has quasi-divine attributes.

637 Knox, Religion in Japan, p. 64.

638 In Alexander, 28. In the case of Alexander the influence of Egypt is apparent, and it may be suspected that this influence affected the later Greek and Roman custom.

639 Appian, De Rebus Syriacis, lxv.

641 Boissier, La religion romaine (1878), i, 131 ff.

642 Suetonius, Caligula, xxii.

643 On the demand for a universal religion in the Roman Empire, and the preparation in the earlier cults for the worship of the emperors, see J. Iverach's article "Cæsarism" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics; Boissier, op. cit., bk. i, chap. ii.

644 Spiegel, Eranische Alterthumskunde, bk. iv, chap. iii.

645 See the story of the power and fall of a great muni in Lassen's Anthologia Sanscritica.

646 So, many Christian and Moslem saints have been wonder-workers without being divinized.

647 Monier-Williams, Brahmanism and Hinduism, p. 510 f.

648 Fortnightly Review, 1872.

649 Stair, Samoa, p. 221; article "Bengal" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics (Brahmans often become evil spirits).

650 The Todas, pp. 193, 203, 446.

651 The Eẃe-speaking Peoples, p. 88 ff.

652 Breasted, Records of Ancient Egypt.

654 Here, as in the case of the divinization of living men (§ 347 n., above), outside suggestion is probable.

655 Cf. article "Cæsarism" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

656 Boissier, La religion romaine, i, 182. An illustration of religious ideas in the third century is afforded by the enrollment of Caracalla among the heroes, a divinizing decree of the Senate having been extorted by the turbulent and mercenary soldiery (Dio Cassius, ed. Boissevain [Eng. tr. by H. B. Foster], lxxix, 9).

657 A. Müller, Islam, i, 494; W. Muir, The Caliphate, p. 553 ff.

658 In Isa. lxiii, 16, 'Abraham' appears to be a synonym of 'Israel,' and the reference then is to the nonrecognition of certain Jews by the national leaders.

659 The narratives of the Pentateuch; Herodotus, v, 66; Pausanias, i, 5, 1.

660 Article "Romulus" in Roscher's Lexikon.

661 See below, § 652.

662 Herodotus, v, 66 al.

663 Saussaye, Religion of the Teutons, pp. 163, 170, 206.

664 The Ojibwa god Manabozho (described in Schoolcraft's Algic Researches) by some inadvertence got the name 'Hiawatha,' and so appears in Longfellow's poem. The real Hiawatha was a distinguished Iroquois statesman (supposed to be of the fifteenth century), the founder of the Iroquois League, honored as a patriot, but never worshiped as a god. See H. Hale, Iroquois Book of Rites, Index, s.v. Hiawatha; Beauchamp, in Journal of American Folklore, October, 1891.

665 F. Pfister, Der Reliquienkult im Altertum.

666 Spencer, Principles of Sociology, i; Grant Allen, Evolution of the Idea of God. See below, § 631 ff.

667 Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, Index, s.v. Dead; Grant Allen, op. cit.; article "Ancestor-worship" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

668 Cf. above, Chap. II.

669 Steinmetz (Ethnologische Studien zur ersten Entwicklung der Strafe, p. 280 ff.) has attempted a collection and interpretation of the usages of nearly two hundred tribes, but his reckoning is not satisfactory—his enumeration is not complete, and the facts are not sufficiently well certified. He concludes that cases of fear are twice as numerous as those of love.

670 Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, chap. xiv.

671 Spencer and Gillen, Northern Tribes Of Central Australia, pp. 516 f., 520 f.

672 Cf. Codrington, The Melanesians, p. 271 f.

673 The conception of such meals as physical and spiritual communion with the dead was a later development.

674 The buffoonery that was sometimes practiced at Roman funerals seems to have come from the natural love of fun, here particularly, also, through the reaction from the oppressive solemnity of the occasion.

675 Howitt and Fison, Kamilaroi and Kurnai, p. 246 ff.

676 Taylor, New Zealand, pp. 104, 108.

677 Codrington, The Melanesians, pp. 194, 253 f.; Powell, Wanderings, p. 170.

678 Ellis, Madagascar, i, 23, 423.

679 Callaway, The Amazulu, pp. 145, 151.

680 A. B. Ellis, The Eẃe, p. 102 f.

681 Steinmetz, Ethnologische Studien zur ersten Entwicklung der Strafe. A. L. Kroeber (in Journal of American Folklore, 1904) gives an account of a 'ghost-dance' in Northwest California, the object of which was said to be that the dead might return, though the details are obscure.

682 Some such custom seems to be referred to in Deut. xxvi, 14.

683 Fritsch, Die Eingeborenen Süd-Afrikas.

684 Mariner, Tonga, p. 149.

685 Wellhausen, Reste arabischen Heidentumes, p. 162 f.; Goldziher, in Revue de l'histoire des religions, x. So the Egyptian fellahin to-day.

686 Codrington, The Melanesians, p. 219 f.; Bonney, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xiii, 122 ff.; Haddon, Head-hunters, pp. 91 f., 183; G. Allen, Evolution of the Idea of God, chap. iii.

687 Sir G. S. Robertson, The Kafirs of the Hindu Kush, pp. 645 ff., 615 ff., 414 f.

688 Breasted, Egypt, p. 421, etc.

689 Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 604 f.

690 Deut. xxvi, 14; Hos. ix, 4; Ezek. xxiv, 17 (revised text); Isa. viii, 19; 1 Sam. xxviii, 13.

691 Rig-Veda, x, 15; Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 143 f.

692 Spiegel, Eranische Alterthumskunde, ii, 91 ff.

693 Odyssey, xi, 74 ff.; cf. xxiv, 63 ff.

694 Odyssey, x, 519 ff.; xi, 25 ff.

695 Stengel and Oehmichen, Die griechischen Sakralaltertümer, p. 99 f.

696 Gardner and Jevons, Greek Antiquities, p. 158 ff.; Gruppe, Griechische Mythologie, Index, s.v. Heros; Deneken, article "Heros" in Roscher, Lexikon. Lists of heroes are given by F. Pfister, in Der Reliquienkult im Altertum.

697 Thucydides, v, 11; Pausanias, i, 32. For other examples, and for the details of the cult, see Stengel and Oehmichen, Die griechischen Sakralaltertümer, p. 96 ff.

698 Similar functions are performed by saints in some Buddhist, Christian, and Moslem communities.

699 Pauly-Wissowa, Real-Encyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft; Miss J. E. Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion, chap. ii, and the references in these works. On the Keres as ghosts see Crusius, in Roscher's Lexikon, s.v. Keren, and Harrison, op. cit., chap. v.

700 Ovid, Fasti, v, 439 ff., manes exite paterni; cf. the Greek proverbial expression θύραζε κᾶρες (Suidas, s.v. θύραζε).

701 De Groot, Religion of the Chinese, chap. iii.

702 Aston, Shinto; Knox, Religion in Japan, p. 66 f.

704 Cf. also the Teutonic valkyrs and nornas.

705 See above, § 359. The wide prevalence of the theory in ancient times is indicated by its adoption in the Græco-Jewish Wisdom of Solomon (of the first century B.C.), chap. xiv, and by some Roman writers.

707 For example, in Australia, Fiji, New Guinea, and India.

708 Greece, Rome (Lupercalia), Egypt, and apparently in Israel (Ex. xxxii, 6; Numb. xxv).

709 In carnivals and many less elaborate customs.

710 See above, § 34.

711 It was observable in the lower animals, but in their case was not regarded as religiously important. See below, § 419, for the connection of animals with phallic cults.

713 Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, ii, 361.

714 See Ratzel, History of Mankind; Waitz, Anthropologie der Naturvölker; Müller, Amerikanische Urreligionen; Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia; Codrington, The Melanesians; W. Ellis, Polynesian Researches; Hartland, article "Bantu" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics; Callaway, Amazulus; Featherman, Races of Mankind; Grünwedel, "Lamaismus" in Die orientalischen Religionen (I, iii, 1 of Die Kultur der Gegenwart); Brinton, Myths of the New World, p. 149; Matthews, Dorsey, Teit, Boas, Hill-Tout, opp. cit. (on American Indians).

716 A. B. Ellis, Yoruba and Eẃe. Ellis does not say that the cult exists in Ashanti, where we should expect it to be found; its absence there is not accounted for. On phallic worship in Congo see H. H. Johnston, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xiii.

717 Hopkins, Religions of India, pp. 453, 470.

718 Cf. Crooke, article "Bengal" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

719 Griffis, Religions of Japan; Aston, Shinto; Buckley, in Saussaye, Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte, 2d ed.; Florens, in Die Kultur der Gegenwart.

720 Herodotus, ii, 48 f.

721 Isis and Osiris, 51.

722 An example of naïve popular festivities is given in Herodotus, ii, 60.

723 The Gilgamesh epic (Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 477); Amos ii, 7; Deut. xxiii, 17 f.; Herodotus, i, 199; Strabo, xvi, 1, 20; Epistle of Jeremy, 42 f.; Lucian, De Syria Dea, 6 ff. But Hos. ii, Ezek. xvi, xxiii, Isa. lvii, 8, are descriptions of Hebrew addiction to foreign idolatrous cults.

724 Isa. lvii, 8: "Thou didst love their bed, the yad thou sawest." The renderings in the English Revised Version are not possible.

725 Lucian, op. cit., 28, cf. 16.

726 The Aramean Atargatis, properly Attar-Ate, is substantially identical with Ashtart and Ishtar.

727 Lucian, De Syria Dea, 15.

728 J. P. Peters, Nippur, Index, s.v. Phallic symbols; Bliss and Macalister, Excavations in Palestine, p. 136; Macalister, Bible Side-lights, p. 72 f.

729 These objects (Hebrew masseba) are denounced by the prophets because they were connected with the Canaanite non-Yahwistic worship. The same thing is true of the sacred wooden post (the ashera) that stood by shrines; Deut. xvi, 21 f., etc.

730 Roscher, Lexikon, s.v. Priapos. Diodorus Siculus, iv, 6, mentions also Ithyphallos and Tychon.

731 Roscher, Lexikon.

732 S. Seligmann, Der böse Bück und Verwandtes, ii, 191 ff.

733 Diodorus Siculus, i, 88.

734 Roscher, Lexikon, s.v. Indigitamenta. Muto is 'phallos.'

735 So Augustine, De Civitate Dei, iv, II, 34 al.

736 S. Seligmann, Der böse Blick und Verwandtes, ii, 196 ff.

737 Cf. Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 490, n. 4.

738 On the yoni as amulet see Seligmann, Der böse Blick und Verwandtes, ii, 203.

739 Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, ii, 491 f., and the references there to Gait's Assam and other works.

740 III Rawlinson, pl. i, no. 12155, and IV Rawlinson, col. 2, II. 25-28. The androgynous sense is maintained by G. A. Barton, in Journal Of the American Oriental Society, xxi, second half, p. 185 ff. Other renderings of the first inscription are given by Thureau-Dangin in Revue d'Assyriologie, iv, and Radau, Early Babylonian History, p. 125.

741 Text in Craig, Assyrian and Babylonian Religious Texts, i, pl. vii, obv. 6, and by Meek, in American Journal of Semitic Languages, xxvi; translation in Jastrow's Religion Babyloniens und Assyriens, i, 544 f., and discussion by him in article "The 'Bearded' Venus" in Revue archéologique, 1911, i.

742 See for Lenormant's view Gazette archéologique, 1876 and 1879, and Jastrow's criticism in the article cited in the preceding note.

743 Lajard, Recherches sur le culte de Vénus. He is followed by A. Jeremias, The Old Testament in the Light of the Ancient East (Eng. tr.), i, 123.

744 Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum, l, i, p. 13.

745 1 Sam. xii, 28; Deut. xxviii, 10. The angel in whom is Yahweh's name (Ex. xxiii, 21) has the authority of the deity.

746 Cf. Dillmann, in Monatsbericht der Akademie der Wissenschaften (Berlin, 1881). The feminine form given to Baal in Rom. xi, 3 f., may refer to the disparaging term 'shame' (Heb. boshet, for which the Greek would be aischunē) often substituted by the late editors of the Old Testament for Baal. Saul's son Ishbaal ('man of Baal') is called Ishbosheth, Jonathan's son Meribbaal is called Mephibosheth, etc.

747 Dillmann (loc. cit.) combines shamē with Ashtart, as if the sense were 'the heavenly Ashtart of Baal'—an impossible rendering; but he also interprets the phrase to mean 'Ashtart the consort of the heavenly Baal.' Halévy, Mélanges, p. 33; Ed. Meyer, in Roscher's Lexikon, article "Astarte."

748 Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum, i, i, no. 195; i, ii, no. 1, al. Tanit appears to be identical in character and cult with Ashtart.

749 See below, § 411 f.: cf. W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, 2d ed., p. 478.

750 A similar interpretation is given by Bæthgen in his Semitische Religionsgeschichte, p. 267 f. His "monistic" view, however, that various deities were regarded as manifestations of the supreme deity is not tenable.

751 Servius, Commentary on Vergil, Æn. ii, 632; Macrobius, Saturnalia, iii, 8 on the same passage.

752 There are manuscript variations in the text of Servius, but these do not affect the sense derived from the two authors, and need not be considered here.

753 Cf. Frazer, Adonis Attis Osiris p. 428 ff.

754 Servius, "they call her"; Macrobius, "Aristophanes calls her." But who this Aristophanes is, or where he so calls her, we are not informed.

755 So Jastrow, in the article cited above. Remarking on the statement of Lydus (in De Mensibus, ii, 10) that the Pamphylians formerly worshiped a bearded Venus, he calls attention to the Carian priestess of Athene (Herodotus, i, 175; viii, 104), who, when misfortune was impending, had (or grew) a great beard—a mark of power, but presumably not a genuine growth. Exactly what this story means it is hard to say.

756 Pausanias, vii, 17; Amobius, v, 5.

757 Roscher, Lexikon, articles "Agdistis," "Attis"; Frazer, Adonis Attis Osiris, p.219 f.; H. Hepding, Attis; cf. Pseudo-Lucian, De Syria Dea, 15 (Attis assumes female form and dress).

758 This practice seems to be an exaggerated form of the savage custom of self-wounding in honor of the dead (to obtain their favor), interpreted in developed cults as a sacrifice to the deity or as a means of union with him.

759 On the wide diffusion of cults of mother-goddesses see below, §§ 729, 734, 762, etc.

760 Cf. Pseudo-Lucian, De Syria Dea 15; Ed. Meyer, Geschichte des Alteriums, 2d ed., i, 649, 651; Lagrange, Études sur les religions sémitiques, 2d ed., p. 241; Hepding, Attis, p. 162.

761 See above, § 411.

762 In Theophrastus, Characters, article 16 (Roscher, Lexikon, 8. v. Hermaphroditos).

763 Roscher, article cited.

764 Hopkins, Religions of India, pp. 447, 492.

765 H. Ellis, Psychology of Sex, i, passim.

766 Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, chap. xliii.

768 Dulaure, Des divinités génératrices. Cf. Hartland, Primitive Paternity, chap. ii.