769 See below, Chap. XI.

770 J. F. McLennan, Studies in Ancient History; Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy; A. Lang, Social Origins; A. E. Crawley, in Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tylor; N. W. Thomas, ibid.

771 Fraser (Totemism and Exogamy, iv, 135), thinks it possible that exogamy of totemic clans is always exogamy in decay.

772 L. H. Morgan (the discoverer of the system), Ancient Society; W. H. R. Rivers in Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tylor.

773 For the supposition of promiscuity are Morgan (op. cit., p. 54), Spencer and Gillen (Native Tribes of Central Australia, p. 100 ff.), and others; against are Westermarck (Human Marriage, chap. iv), Crawley (The Mystic Rose, p. 479 ff.), and others.

774 Cf. Morgan, op. cit., p. 27, and part ii, chap. i.

775 Howitt, Native Tribes of South-East Australia, p. 269 ff.

776 Gen. xx, 12; the rule was later abrogated (Ezek. xxii, 11; Lev. xviii, 9).

777 J. F. McLennan, Studies in Ancient History, first series, p. 90 ff.; second series, chap. vii.

778 L. H. Morgan, Ancient Society, p. 424 ff.; Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, i, 164 ff.

779 Westermarck, Human Marriage, chaps. xiv-xvi; Crawley, The Mystic Rose, p. 222. Cf. Darwin, Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication, ii, 103 f.

780 J. J. Atkinson, Primal Law (in volume with Lang's Social Origins, p. 210 ff.).

781 E. Durkheim, in Année sociologique, i, 1-70.

782 Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, iv, 75 ff.

783 See references in § 426.

784 H. Ellis, Psychology of Sex, i, 36 f.; Crawley, in Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tylor.

785 See above, § 431.

786 See above, § 429, and compare Howard, History of Matrimonial Institutions, i, 121 ff.

787 Details are given in Frazer's Totemism and Exogamy.

788 Cf. below, § 442.

789 On two supposed human totems, Laughing Boys and Nursing Mothers, see Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, i, 160, 253; ii, 520 f.

790 § 436.

791 So, apparently, among the Nandi (Hollis, The Nandi, pp. 6, 61).

792 As among the Australian Arunta (Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, pp. 116, 125 ff.).

793 Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, ii, 136; iii, 321; Boas, The Kwakiutl, p. 328 ff.

794 Haddon and Rivers, Expedition to Torres Straits, v, 158 ff.; Seligmann, The Melanesians of British New Guinea, pp. 51, 320.

795 Fraser, Totemism and Exogamy, ii, 200; iii, 40, 227, 267, 281, 322.

796 Swanton, Tlingit Myths (Bulletin 39, Bureau of American Ethnology).

797 See below, § 544 ff.

798 For the details of totemic customs reference may be made, once for all, to Frazer's encyclopedic Totemism and Exogamy.

799 Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, pp. 415, 423, etc.

800 Rivers, Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, xxxix; Man, viii.

801 Brinton, The Lenâpé, p. 39.

802 E. F. im Thurn, Indians of Guiana, p. 184.

803 For the Mandingos of Senegambia see Revue d'ethnographie, v, 81, cited in Frazer's Totemism and Exogamy, ii, 544.

804 Teit, Thompson River Indians, p. 95.

805 Swanton, Tlingit Myths, and Jesup North Pacific Expedition, v, 231; Boas, The Kwakiutl, pp. 323, 336 f.

806 Seligmann, The Melanesians of British New Guinea, p. 679; in the Louisiade group belief in direct descent is said to exist (p. 743).

807 Cf. the remarks of Boas in the Introduction to Teit's Thompson River Indians.

808 On the other hand, the Kurnai, who are not totemic, refrain, apparently, from eating their sex-patrons.

809 This report was made in 1841, before the natives had come in contact with the whites.

810 In the Banks Islands the restrictions of eating relate to the patrons of individual persons; see Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, xxxix, 165 f.

811 Rivers, The Todas, Index, s.v. Food, restriction on.

812 Cf. Matthews, Navaho Legends, p. 239, note 169; Franciscan Fathers, Ethnologic Dictionary p. 507.

813 Teit, Thompson River Indians, p. 77.

814 Cf. A. M. Tozzer, Comparative Study of the Mayas and the Lacandones (of Yucatan), and the literature given in articles "America, South" and "Brazil" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

815 J. W. Fewkes is of opinion that the great Snake dance (an economic function) was formerly conducted by the Snake clan (Sixteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, p. 304).

816 The choice of the object is determined by local conditions that are not known to us. Sometimes, probably, the object is the one most important for the welfare of the community; sometimes it may have come from accident. See below, § 554 ff.

817 The artificial objects that are regarded, in a few cases, as totems are probably of late origin, the product of reflection, and thus differing from the old totems, which arise in an unreflective time. However, the artificial totems are doubtless sometimes looked on as powerful; in some cases they may be little more than badges.

818 This is Frazer's definition (in his Totemism p. 1), supplemented by the words "not worshiped." Cf., on the whole subject, Tylor, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxviii, 144; F. Boas, in American Journal of Psychology, xxi; A. A. Goldenweiser, "Totemism," in Journal of American Folklore, xxiii (1910).

819 For a preciser definition of totemism see below, § 520.

820 The details are given in Frazer's Totemism and Exogamy.

821 Certain Arunta traditions appear to point to a time when the totem was freely eaten. The bird-mates of the clans may be regarded as secondary totems—perhaps a survival from a time when a clan might have more than one totem.

822 Spencer and Gillen, Northern Tribes of Central Australia, pp. 173, 318.

823 The clan-names may formerly have been totemic, but data for the decision of this point are lacking.

824 So Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, iv, 173.

825 Cf. H. Webster, Primitive Secret Societies, pp. 1, 121 ff.; Crawley, The Mystic Rose, pp. 41 f., 45, 350, 454 ff.; Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, ii, 28 ff.; Hobhouse, Morals in Evolution, i, 183 ff., 188 ff.

826 C. G. Seligmann, The Melanesians of British New Guinea, chaps. xxxv, 1.

827 Such a belief is said to exist in the Aru archipelago (Papuan) west of New Guinea. There the family, and not the clan, is the social unit; every family has its badge or crest.

828 Melanesia is here taken to include the Bismarck Archipelago (New Britain, New Ireland, and adjacent islands) and the islands lying to the eastward as far as the 180th meridian of longitude, though in this area there is in some places Polynesian influence.

829 So Reverend George Brown, Melanesians and Polynesians, p. 28.

830 This usage is reported for Florida Island.

831 On the question whether these gods are a development out of totem animals see below, § 577.

832 On the relation of this idea to Frazer's theory of "conceptional totemism" see below, § 548.

833 It might then seem that the deity was originally the animal; see below, § 577.

834 As to the significance of this fact cf. below, § 529 ff.

835 W. H. Furness, 3d, The Island of Stone-Money.

836 On the large theistic material of the Pelews see Frazer, Adonis Attis Osiris, pp. 386, 428 ff., with references to J. Kubary, "Die Religion der Pelauer" (in A. Bastian's Allerlei aus Volks- und Menschenkunde).

837 Cf. below, § 577.

838 Exogamy is said to exist in the atoll Lua Niua, in the Lord Howe group; the population is described as Polynesian (Brown, Melanesians and Polynesians, p. 414 ff.); Dr. Brown thinks it probable that exogamous classes formerly existed in Samoa, to which place the Lua Niua people, he holds, are ultimately to be traced.

839 Certain septs (among the Telugus and others) are named from inanimate (some times artificial) objects.

840 The usages mentioned in article "Burma" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, iii, 24, do not necessarily show totemism.

841 The Iroquois stock occupied an immense territory, partly in Canada, partly in the region now including the states of New York, Pennsylvania, Kentucky, Tennessee, Georgia, Alabama, and the Carolinas.

842 Cf. Gatschet, Migration Legend of the Creeks, p. 24 ff.

843 The Wyandots, who were allied to the Iroquois, dwelt in the district north of Lake Ontario.

844 The Algonkins formerly ranged over a large territory extending along the Atlantic coast as far south as North Carolina and reaching westward to the Mississippi.

845 It was from the Ojibwas that our word 'totem' was taken.

846 A similar rôle, somewhat vague, is assigned to two supernatural beings in Australia (Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, p. 388; cf. p. 246).

847 Gatschet, Migration Legend of the Creeks, p. 177 ff. It was expiatory, and was accompanied by a moral reconstruction of society, a new beginning, with old scores wiped out. Cf. the Cherokee Green Corn dance (see article "Cherokees" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics).

848 Dorsey, The Skidi Pawnee, p. xviii. The Pawnee had a fairly well-developed pantheon, and a civil government based on rank (chiefs, warriors, priests, magicians). They lived in endogamous villages; in every village there was a sacred bundle, and all the people of the village were considered to be descendants of the original owner of the bundle.

849 Will and Spinden, The Mandans (Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archæology and Ethnology, Harvard University, vol. iii, 1906), p. 129 ff.

850 J. W. Fewkes, The Winter Solstice Ceremony at Walpi (reprint from The American Anthropologist, vol. xi, 1898), with bibliography.

851 Fewkes, Journal of American Ethnology and Archæology, iv, and Journal of American Folklore, iv.

852 The stocks or groups are, going from north to south: the Déné or Athabascans (middle of Alaska and running east and west); the Tlingit (Southern Alaska); the Haidas (Queen Charlotte Islands and adjacent islands); the Tsimshians (valleys of the Nass and Skeena rivers and adjacent islands); the Kwakiutl (coast of British Columbia, from Gardiner Channel to Cape Mudge, but not the west coast of Vancouver Island); the Nootkas (west coast of Vancouver Island); the Salish (eastern part of Vancouver Island, and parts of British Columbia, Washington, Idaho, and Montana); the Kootenay (near Kootenay Lake and adjoining parts of the United States). See the authorities cited by Frazer in Totemism and Exogamy.

853 § 445 f.

854 Cf. the divergent native accounts of the Melanesian buto (Codrington, The Melanesians, p. 31 ff.).

855 In North America, in the Iroquois, Algonkin, Maskoki (Creek), and Siouan stocks; in Central America and South America; in Borneo and East Africa; and elsewhere.

856 R. B. Dixon, The Northern Maidu (Central California), p. 223; id., The Shasta (Northern California and Oregon), p. 451; id., The Chimariko Indians (west of the Shasta, on Trinity River), p. 301; A. L. Kroeber, article "California" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

857 Article "Bantu" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

858 Hollis, The Masai, Index, and The Nandi, p. 5 f.

859 A hint of an earlier usage is given in a legend which relates that totemic clans were ordained by a king to the end that certain sorts of food might be taboo to certain families, and thus animals might have a better chance to multiply.

860 See the volumes of A. B. Ellis on these countries (chapters on "Gods" and on "Government").

861 A. van Gennep, Tabou et totémisme à Madagascar, p. 314.

862 On this point see below, § 522 ff.

863 For the details see W. R. Smith, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia (includes the Hebrews); Joseph Jacobs, "Are there Totem-clans in the Old Testament?" (in Archæological Review, vol. iii); A. Lang, Custom and Myth (on the Greek genos), and Myth, Ritual, and Religion, i, 266 ff.; ii, 226; S. Reinach, Cultes, mythes et religions (Greek and Celtic); Gardner and Jevons, Greek Antiquities, p. 68 ff., etc.; Fowler, Roman Festivals, p. 84 f.; G. L. Gomme, "Totemism in Britain" (in Archæological Review, vol. iii); N. W. Thomas, "La survivance du culte totémique des animaux et les rites agraires dans le pays de Galles" (in Revue de l'histoire des religions, vol. xxxviii).

864 Names are omitted that appear to belong only to individuals or to places.

865 G. B. Gray, Hebrew Proper Names, p. 86 ff.

866 Strabo, Geographica, xiii, 588.

867 Herodotus, ii, 37, 42; Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheke Historike, i, 70.

868 Lev. xi; Deut. xiv.

869 Stengel and Oehmichen, Die griechischen Sakralaltertümer, p. 27.

870 Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., i, 241 f.

871 Cæsar, De Bello Gallico, v, 12.

872 Herodotus, ii, 42.

873 Pausanias, i, 24, 4. On the death of the god cf. Frazer, The Dying God.

874 Herodotus, ii, 39 ff., W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, 2d ed., additional note G; the Roman Lupercalia.

875 Diodorus Siculus, i, 86 (Egypt); cf. Pliny, Historia Naturalis, x, 4 f.

876 W. R. Smith, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia, chap. viii (Semites).

877 See above, §§ 441 ff., 466, and below, § 526; Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, Index, s.vv. Animals and Totems.

878 See above, § 443 ff.

879 So, also, in Northeastern Asia, in the Japan archipelago (the Ainu), and in low African tribes.

880 Where sexual license before marriage prevails, young girls are allowed to go to these houses.

881 H. Webster, Primitive Secret Societies.

882 G. Brown, Melanesians and Polynesians, p. 60 ff.

883 Mary Kingsley, West African Studies, p. 384, and Travels in West Africa, p. 532 ff.; Ellis, Yoruba, p. 110.

884 H. Webster, Primitive Secret Societies, p. 164 ff.

885 Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, i, 495 ff.

886 Frazer, loc. cit. Cf. A. Lang, Secret of the Totem, p. 138.

887 Jesup North Pacific Expedition, vi, i, 32 ff., 43 ff.

888 So worship was offered to the Roman genius (Horace, Carm. iii, 17; Epist. i, 7, 94).

889 A. B. Ellis, Eẃe, p. 105; Tshi, p. 156; Yoruba, chap. vii.

890 Turner, Samoa, p. 78 f. So the κουροτρόφος (Farnell, in Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tylor).

891 W. H. Dall, Alaska and its Resources, p. 145, cited by Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, iii, 442 f.

892 The acquisition of a supernatural inspirer by a shaman is analogous to this custom, but belongs in a somewhat different category: see below, § 540.

893 Miss Alice Fletcher, "Indian Ceremonies" (in Report of the Peabody Museum of American Archæology and Ethnology, Harvard University, 1883).

894 F. Boas, The Kwakiutl, p. 393 f.

895 Cf. Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, iii, 450 ff.

896 This process is similar to the gradual reduction of the European independent barons to the position of royal officers.

897 See below, § 633 f.

898 As, for example, by the Marathas of the Bombay Presidency (Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, ii, 276 ff.).

899 Lord Avebury (Sir John Lubbock), Prehistoric Times, 2d ed., p. 598, and 6th ed., p. 610; id., Origin of Civilisation (1902), p. 275 ff.; and his Marriage, Totemism, and Religion.

900 Herbert Spencer, Fortnightly Review, 1870, and Principles of Sociology i, § 171.

901 This view is provisionally indorsed by E. B. Tylor, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxviii.

902 One such case is mentioned in Codrington's Melanesians, p. 33.

903 Frazer, Golden Bough (1890), ii, 332 ff. This theory has since been abandoned by Frazer (Totemism and Exogamy, iv, 54 f.).

904 Frazer, Fortnightly Review, July and September, 1905, pp. 154-172 (reprinted in Totemism and Exogamy, i); Totemism and Exogamy, ii, 89 ff.; iv, 57 ff.

905 Rivers, "Totemism in Polynesia and Melanesia" (in Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, xxxix [1909], 172); Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, iv, 59 ff.

906 This is the theory adopted by Frazer in his latest work on the subject.

907 The widespread belief that birth may be independent of the union of the sexes does not, of course, carry with it an explanation of totemism.

908 Lippert, Die Religionen der europäischen Culturvölker, p. 12; G. A. Wilken, "Het Animisme bij de Volken van den Indischen Archipel," in De Indische Gids, 1884 (cf. Tylor, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxviii, 1899); G. M. Theal, Records of South-eastern Africa, vii, and History and Ethnography of South Africa, i. 90.

909 F. B. Jevons, Introduction to the History Of Religion, 1st ed., p. 101.

910 F. M. Müller, Anthropological Religion, p. 121 ff.; Pikler and Somló, Ursprung des Totemismu, p. 7 ff.; A. K. Keane, Ethnology, p. 10; cf. G. M. Theal, History and Ethnography Of South Africa, i, 17.