911 A. C. Haddon, in Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, 1902.

912 A. Lang, The Secret of the Totem, chap. vi.

913 Lists are given in Frazer's Totemism and Exogamy.

914 Lang, The Secret of the Totem, loc. cit.; Theal, History and Ethnography of South Africa, i, 92.

915 Cf. A. W. Howitt, Native Tribes of South-East Australia, p. 154.

916 Frazer, in Fortnightly Review, 1899 (this theory was afterwards abandoned by him); B. Spencer, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxviii (1899).

917 Cf. Durkheim, in Année sociologique, v.

918 Durkheim, in Année sociologique, v.

919 See below, § 577.

920 Frazer, in his Totemism (this view is now given up by him); F. B. Jevons, Introduction to the History of Religion, Index; S. Reinach, Cultes, mythes et religions, i, 86 ff.; Hahn, Die Haustiere, pp. 28 ff., 42, and his Demeter und Baubo, p. 19 ff. (domestication of cattle and use of milk as food connected with moon-cult). Cf. H. Ling Roth, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xvi, 102 ff.

921 The totem belongs not to a tribe (Jevons, Introduction to the History of Religion, p. 114 f.) but to a clan.

922 Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, iv, 19.

923 W. E. Roth, quoted in Frazer's Totemism and Exogamy, i, 532.

924 See above, § 529 ff.

925 W. E. Roth, North Queensland Ethnography; Spencer and Gillen, Northern Tribes of Central Australia, p. 226 ff.

926 See below, § 635 ff.; cf. A. Lang, Myth, Ritual, and Religion, ii, 197, etc.; S. Relnach, Orpheus (Eng. tr.), p. 81 ff.; Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, iv, 30 ff.

927 Haddon, in Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tyler, 183 ff.

928 Rivers, in Man, viii (1908).

929 Cf. Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, iv, 31 ff. The Bushman god Cagn, who has the form of a mantis, and the Hindu monkey-god Hanuman seem to have no connection with totemism.

930 Cf. the remarks of Haddon, op. cit.

931 So Zeus and other Greek gods.

932 See below, § 1041 ff.

933 See below, § 635.

934 The moral perfection of the individual is an ideal that has arisen out of social relations; it is demanded by the deity because the moral standard of a deity is that of his human society.

935 In international relations this tendency appears in the demand for arbitration.

936 N. W. Thomas, article "Taboo" in Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th ed.; Codrington, The Melanesians; Thomson, Story of New Zealand; A. van Gennep, Tabou et totémisme à Madagascar; Wallace, Malay Archipelago, p. 149 f.; J. G. Frazer, Early History of the Kingship; Marett, "Is Taboo a Negative Magic?" (in Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tylor).

937 Cf. the Chickasa hullo, said to mean 'mysterious' (Speck, in Journal of American Folklore, xx, 57).

938 The danger from such objects is referred to a supernatural presence, whose attitude toward human beings may be doubtful; only, when the phenomenon observed is thought to be nonnatural and is afflictive (as in the case of death, for example), this attitude is judged to be hostile.

939 Purely economic and other social considerations are sometimes combined with the mana conception.

940 The physical unity produced by contact may be brought about, according to savage philosophy, in other ways.

941 Ploss-Bartels, Das Weib, i, 591; cf. E. S. Hartland, Primitive Paternity; Avesta, Vendidad, xv, 8.

942 Article "Birth" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

943 Ploss-Bartels, Das Weib, ii, 345 ff.

944 Lev. xii. In the modern Parsi usage a woman after giving birth is secluded forty days.

945 On the relation between birth customs and systems of relationship (patrilineal and matrilineal) see the references in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, ii, 636.

946 Numb. xix, 11 ff. For the Mazdean rules see Tiele-Gehrich, Geschichte der Religion im Altertum, ii, 340 ff.

947 Sanitary purposes may have entered into such customs.

948 Seligmann, The Melanesians of British New Guinea, chap. xxiii, p. 138, etc.; Turner, Samoa, p. 145 f.; Kidd, The Essential Kafir, p. 253.

949 Ellis, The Eẃe-speaking Peoples, p. 160.

950 Cicero, De Legibus, ii, 26 (Athens); Roman Digests, xlvii, 12; Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum, i, 13 (Phœnician); and so among many savage and half-civilized peoples.

951 Crawley, The Mystic Rose, chap. iii.

952 Seligmann, The Melanesians of British New Guinea, p. 140.

953 Ploss-Bartels, Das Weib, i, 296, 302, 374, 618.

954 Frazer, article "Taboo" in Encyclopædia Britannica, 9th ed.

955 Seligmann, The Melanesians of British New Guinea, p. 466; Crawley, The Mystic Rose, p. 52 ff.

956 G. Brown, Melanesians and Polynesians, p. 241; W. H. Furness, 3d, The Island of Stone-Money, p. 38 f.

957 Crawley, The Mystic Rose, p. 399 ff.

958 A physiological basis for this view seems to lie outside the resources of savage observation, but prohibition of intercourse just after childbirth may have a humanitarian basis.

959 G. Brown, Melanesians and Polynesians, pp. 68, 80, 200; Seligmann, The Melanesians of British New Guinea, p. 292; W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, additional note C.

960 Cf. Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, ii, 406 ff.; Hobhouse, Morals in Evolution, Index, s.v. Chastity.

961 See below, § 895 ff.; Westermarck, op. cit., i, 620 ff.

962 Ezek. xliv, 19. The term "sanctify" of the English Version means 'make ritually sacred,' not to be touched. Cf. Shortland, Southern Districts of New Zealand, p. 293 f.; Wellhausen, Reste arabischen Heidentumes, p. 106 f.

963 For Jewish rules see Lev. xxi. The onerous restrictions on the Roman flamen dialis and his wife are given in Frazer's Golden Bough (see Index, s.v. Flamen dialis) and the authorities cited by him.

964 The prohibition of the products of the grapevine to the Nazirite (Numb. vi, 3 f.) seems to have been originally part of the attempt to follow the old pastoral life, in contrast with the Canaanite agricultural life; later it received a religious coloring. The prohibition might begin at the moment of the child's conception (Judg. xiii, 4, 14).

965 Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., i, 299 ff.

966 Turner, Samoa.

967 Alexander, Short History of the Hawaiian People.

968 R. Taylor, New Zealand, chap. viii.

969 Furness, Home Life of the Borneo Head-hunters, p. 160 ff.

970 C. S. Hurgronje, The Achehnese, p. 262 ff.

971 T. C. Hodson, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxvi.

972 Codrington, The Melanesians, p. 215 ff.

973 Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion, pp. 50, 96 ff.; Fowler, Roman Festivals, p. 106 ff.

974 Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., iii, 76 f.

975 Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxii; Frazer, op. cit., iii, 80.

976 T. C. Hodson, "The Genna amongst the Tribes of Assam" (in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxvi).

977 Lev. xxiii; Numb. xxviii f.

978 Stengel and Oehmichen, Griechische Sakralaltertümer, p. 170.

979 Wissowa, Religion der Römer, p. 365 ff.

980 Numb. xxviii, 26.

981 The Thargelia; Harrison, op. cit., chap. iii.

982 Mariner, Tonga, p. 483

983 W. Ellis, Polynesian Researches, iv, 388, etc.

984 Cf. Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 448 ff.

985 Cf. W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, additional note C.

986 Rivers, The Todas, p. 405 ff.

987 Tylor, Primitive Culture, i, 288, 354.

988 For details see Frazer, Adonis Attis Osiris, bk. iii, chap. viii f.

989 Hollis, The Nandi p. 95 f.

990 Rhys Davids, Buddhism (in Non-Christian Religious Systems), p. 140 f. Thus, as the author remarks, uposatha is a weekly festival; and there is an approach to a true seven-day week.

991 Alexander, Short History of the Hawaiian People.

992 Details of the week are given in the article "Calendar" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, with references to authorities.

993 Hollis, The Nandi, p. 79; Frazer, Adonis Attis Osiris, pp. 370 ff., 375.

994 See the noteworthy Yoruban rest day, the first day of the five-day week (A. B. Ellis, Yoruba).

995 For the literature on the sabbath see Herzog-Hauck, Real-Encyklopädie; Jastrow, in American Journal of Theology for 1898; Cheyne, Encyclopædia Biblica; Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible; Jewish Encyclopedia; F. Bohn, Der Sabbat im Alten Testament; Benzinger, Hebräische Archäologie; Nowack, Hebräsche Archäologie; C. H. Toy, "The Earliest Form of the Sabbath," in Journal of Biblical Literature for 1899 (in which, so far as appears, the view that the Hebrew sabbath is a taboo day is stated for the first time).

996 Any taboo day might be the occasion of placative ceremonies; but this is not a distinctive feature of the day.

997 T. G. Pinches, in Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archæology, xxvi, 51 ff.; Zimmern, in Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft, lviii, 199 ff., 458 ff.; J. Meinhold, Sabbat und Woche im Alten Testament. There is no good reason to doubt that this Babylonian term is formally identical with Hebrew shabat.

998 2 Kings iv, 23; Amos viii, 5; Isa. i, 13.

999 Exod. xxiii, 6.

1000 Deut. v, 12 ff.; Exod. xx, 8 ff.; the term 'holy' here means set apart ritually, that is, taboo.

1001 Ezek. xx, 12 f., 16, 20 f., 24; Isa. lviii, 13 f.; cf. article "Sabbath" in Jewish Encyclopedia.

1002 The Hebrew stem shabat means 'to cease,' a signification that accords well with the character of a taboo day. But this sense has not been certainly found for the Babylonian stem, and the original force of the term sabbath may be left undecided.

1003 Exod. xxiii, 12.

1004 Chabas, Le calendrier des jours fastes et néfastes; Maspero, Études égyptiennes, i, 28 ff.; Wiedemann, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians, chap. x.

1005 IV Rawlinson, plates, 32 f.; Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 373 ff.

1006 Hesiod, Works and Days, 763 ff.

1007 Wissowa, Religion der Römer, p. 365 ff.; Fowler, Roman Festivals, Index. The Romans, with their thoroughness where public religion was concerned, divided all the days of the year into the three classes, dies festi (festive, for worship), dies profesti (for ordinary business), and dies intercisi (mixed, partly for religion, partly for ordinary affairs).

1008 Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, iii, 29 (Burma).

1009 J. H. King, The Supernatural, Index, s.v. Luck.

1010 Many examples are given in Westermarck's Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, chap. xxxvii f.; cf. above, § 204 ff., on fasting.

1011 Howitt, Native Tribes of South-East Australia, p. 630 ff.

1012 E. A. Gait, article "Caste" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

1013 Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., i, 321.

1014 Taboo thus helps the growth of civil law (especially of penal codes) by its collection of offenses, though only on condition of retiring from the field. Cf. Frazer, Psyche's Task, p. 17 ff.

1015 Lev. xiv, 48-53.

1016 Lev. xii.

1017 So in many popular festivals; see Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia; Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 453 ff.; Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, chap. xlii.

1018 Examples are given in Crawley's Mystic Rose, pp. 223, 480 ff., chap. x ff.

1019 Tylor, Early History of Mankind, 3d ed., p. 129 ff.; Hubert and Mauss, in Année sociologique, vii; Frazer, Early History of the Kingship, lecture ii, especially p. 52 ff. (he defines taboo as "negative magic," magic, that is, employed to avoid malefic influences); cf. Crawley, The Mystic Rose, chap. ix, for the transmission of sex characteristics.

1020 Cf. R. R. Marett, "Is Taboo a Negative Magic?" (reply to Frazer), in Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tylor.

1021 Cf. Marett, op. cit.

1022 R. Taylor, New Zealand, chap. viii; Alexander, Short History of the Hawaiian People.

1023 Shortland, Maori Religion.

1024 Exod. xxiii, 10 f.

1025 Livy, i, 31.

1026 Codrington, The Melanesians, p. 215 ff.; George Brown, Melanesians and Polynesians, p. 273 ff.

1027 Seligmann, The Melanesians of British New Guinea, Index, s.v. Taboo.

1028 H. Ling Roth, The Natives of Sarawak and British North Borneo, i, 98.

1029 On permontong see W. H. Furness, 3d, Home Life of the Borneo Head-hunters, p. 160 ff.

1030 Manu, v, 62.

1031 Miss Alice Fletcher, Indian Ceremonies, p. 297 f.

1032 Miss Mary Kingsley, Travels, Index.

1033 T. C. Hodson, "Genna amongst the Tribes of Assam," in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxvi (1906).

1034 Kidd, The Essential Kafir, Index.

1035 Boas, in Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, and Bulletin XV, American Museum of Natural History.

1036 Lev. xii-xv.

1037 Deut. xiv; Lev. xi; Diogenes Laertius, Pythagoras, xvii.

1038 On tabu (or tapu) see E. Tregear, Maori-Polynesian Comparative Dictionary; W. Ellis, Polynesian Researches, iv, 385.

1039 Codrington, The Melanesians, p. 215.

1040 A. van Gennep, Tabou et totémisme à Madagascar.

1041 R. H. Nassau, Fetichism in West Africa, p. 211.

1042 The taboo sense proper is not found in ἄγιος (ἄγος), ἐναγής, and Latin sacer which rather mean what is accursed, detestable on account of wrong committed.

1043 Sacred books "defile the hands."

1044 Cf. articles "Taboo" in Encyclopædia Britannica, 9th ed. (by Frazer) and 11th ed. (by Thomas).

1045 The relation between totemism and man's attitude toward beasts and plants is discussed above, §§ 524 ff., 564 ff.

1046 A. B. Ellis, Yoruba, p. 167.

1047 Alexander, Short History of the Hawaiian People, chap. xxii.

1048 On the question whether a germinal sense of moral obligation is found in the lower animals see above, § 12.

1049 Naturally, the origin of all the particular taboos escapes us; it depends in most cases on unknown conditions.

1050 1 Cor. xi, 27-30.

1051 On the social organization of law cf. Darwin, Descent of Man, p. 108; article "Aryan Religion" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

1052 See above, § 240 ff.

1053 In a cannibal community, for example, the gods will be cannibal; see A. Lang, Myth, Ritual, and Religion, new ed., i, 6, 263 f.

1054 Rawlinson, History of Ancient Egypt, i, 414 f.; ff., 85, 506; Breasted, History of Egypt, pp. 46, 575; Hopkins, Religions of India, pp. 368, 502; ibid., p. 538 f.

1055 They sometimes coalesce in functions with ghosts and spirits.

1056 Teit, Thompson River Indians, p. 19 ff.

1057 L. Farrand, "Traditions of the Chilcotin Indians" in Jesup North Pacific Expedition (vol. ii of Memoirs of the American Museum of Natural History), i, 14 ff.; Farrand and Kahnweiler, "Traditions of the Quinault Indians," ibid., iii, 111; Boas, Indianische Sagen, p. 194 ff.; C. Hill-Tout, articles in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, vols. xxxiv, xxxv, xxxvii.

1058 Boas, Introduction to Teit's Thompson River Indians, p. 16, and "Reports on the Indians of British Columbia" in Reports of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, vols. lix, lx, lxi, lxiv, lxv. A tricksy character is ascribed to Loki in some of the Norse stories (Saussaye, Religion of the Teutons, p. 263). Loki, however, as he appears in the literature, is a highly complex figure.