1198 Boissier, La religion romaine, i, 4 ff.; Wissowa, Religion der Römer, p. 46 ff.; Usener, Götternamen, p. 364 ff. (cf. Farnell, in Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tylor); Fowler, Roman Festivals, pp. 190 f., 341; Frazer, Adonis Attis Osiris, p. 169 ff.

1199 Cf. above, § 679, note.

1200 Not all of these had public cults.

1201 See articles in Roscher's Lexicon ("Eros," "Moira," and similar terms); on Phoibos, cf. L. Deubner, in Athenische Mittheilungen, 1903.

1202 Cicero, De Natura Deorum, ii, 25.

1203 Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 135 f.; Bloomfield, Religion of the Veda, pp. 191, 243 ff.; Macdonell, Vedic Mythology, p. 115 ff.

1204 Spiegel, Eranische Alterthumskunde, ii, 34 ff.; A. V. Williams Jackson, Iranische Religion (in Geiger and Kuhn's Grundriss der iranischen Philologie, ii, 637).

1205 The six are: Vohumanah (Good Thought or Good Mind), Khshathra Vairya (Best or Wished-for Righteous Realm or Law), Spenta Armaiti (Holy Harmony), Asha Vahista (Perfect Righteousness or Piety), Haurvatat (Well-being), Ameretat (Immortality).

1206 On these and certain minor divinized conceptions of time see Spiegel, op. cit., ii, 4-17. On the Hindu personification of time see Bloomfield, Religion of the Veda, p. 244 ff. In these and similar cases time, containing all things, is conceived of as the producer of all things, and the line between personification and hypostatization is not always clearly defined. For the influence of astrology on the deification of time, see Cumont, Les religions orientates parmi les peuples romains, chap. vii (on astrology and magic), p. 212 f., paragraph on new deities, and notes thereto. Hubert, "La représentation du temps dans la religion et la magie" (in Mélanges de l'histoire des religions), p. 190, distinguishes between the notation of favorable and unfavorable times (and the nonchronological character of mythical histories) and the calendar, which counts moments continuously.

1207 On a supposed relation between the Amesha-spentas and the Vedic Adityas see Roth, in Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft, vi, 69 f.; Macdonell, Vedic Mythology, p. 44; Bloomfield, Religion of the Veda, p. 134 f. Cf. also L. H. Gray (on the derivation of the Amshaspands from material gods), in Archiv für Religionswissenschaft, vii (1904), 345.

1208 Cf. J. B. Carter, De Deorum Romanorum Cognominibus.

1209 Cf. Boissier, La religion romaine, i, 9.

1210 Cf. Farnell, Cults of the Greek States, v, 442 ff.

1211 They survive in later times to some extent in the form of patron and other local saints, Christian and Moslem.

1212 Cf. Bloomfield's classification of deities (Religion of the Veda, p. 96) partly according to the degree of clearness with which characters belonging to physical nature appear: "translucent" gods are those whose origin in nature is obvious; "transparent" gods are half-personified nature objects.

1213 Cf. Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii, 285 ff.

1214 See above, § 328 ff.

1215 Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, p. 561 ff., and Northern Tribes of Central Australia, p. 182; Codrington, The Melanesians, p. 348; Roth, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxi, 125; Boas, The Kwakiutl, p. 410 f.

1216 Cf. Batchelor, The Ainu (1901), p. 63 f.

1217 Cf. Aston, Shinto, p. 35.

1218 J. G. Müller, Amerikanische Urreligionen, p. 58, and Index, s.v. Sonnendienst; Matthews, Navaho Legends, p. 33; Brinton, The Lenâpé, p. 65 (cf. his American Hero-Myths, p. 230); Gatschet, Migration Legend of the Creeks, p. 216 f.

1219 Prescott, Mexico, i, 57 ff.; id., Peru, i, 92 ff.; E. J. Payne, History of the New World called America, i, 463, 550 ff.; C. R. Markham, The Incas of Peru, pp. 63, 67, 104 ff.

1220 Records of the Past, first series, ii, 129 ff.; viii, 105 ff.

1221 Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 71.

1222 A. B. Ellis, Eẃe, p. 65.

1223 Macdonell, Vedic Mythology, pp. 30, 32, 29, cf. p. 23; Bloomfield, Religion of the Veda, p. 86; Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 40 ff.

1224 Yashi, x, 67.

1225 Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 529 f.

1226 § 710.

1227 W. Crooke, Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India, i, 12 ff.; Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, xviii, 373 ff. (the Lurka Coles); Hopkins, Religions of India (Dravidians, Kolarians); and for a modern, more civilized cult see Hopkins, op. cit., p. 480, note 3; Payne, History of the New World called America, i, 546 ff.

1228 Turner, Samoa, Index, s.v. Moon; Matthews, Navaho Legends, pp. 86, 226.

1229 See above, § 328 ff.; cf. Tylor, Primitive Culture, i, 290 f.

1230 Erman, Handbook of Egyptian Religion, pp. 88, 91.

1231 Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 356 ff., 457.

1232 De Groot, Religion of the Chinese, p. 5 (cf. J. Edkins, Religion in China, p. 105 ff.).

1233 Hopkins, Religions of India, pp. 204, 266, 526.

1234 Judg. v, 20; Isa. xxiv, 21 ff.; Job xxxviii, 7; Enoch xviii, 12; xxi, 1 (cf. Rev. ix, 1); cf. Neh. ix, 6. See Baudissin, Semitische Religionsgeschichte, i, 118 ff.; article "Astronomy and Astrology" in Hastings Dictionary of the Bible.

1235 2 Kings xxiii, 5.

1236 The corrupt and obscure passage Amos v, 26, cannot be cited as proving a cult of a deity Kaiwan (Masoretic text Kiyyun, Eng. R.V. "shrine") identical with Assyrian kaiwan or kaiman, the planet Saturn; there is no evidence that this planet was worshiped in Assyria.

1237 Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, i, 660.

1238 Cf. W. R. Smith, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia, chap. vi, note 8; Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, loc. cit.

1239 Spiegel, Eranische Alterthumskunde, ii, 70 ff.

1240 Cf. Gruppe, Griechische Mythologie, Index, s.vv. Stern and Sternbilder.

1241 Cumont, Les religions orientales parmi les peuples romains, chap. vii.

1242 The Franciscan Fathers, Ethnologic Dictionary of the Navaho Language, Index, s.v.; Tylor, Primitive Culture, i, 293 f.

1243 This is the full development of what had doubtless been felt vaguely from the beginning of religious history.

1244 On Kronos and the Titans cf. article "Kronos" in Roscher's Lexikon.

1245 Cælus (or Cælum) was sometimes called the son of Æther and Dies (Cicero, De Natura Deorum, iii, 17, 24).

1246 Ed. Meyer, Geschichte des Alten Aegyptens (and cf. his Geschichte des Altertums, 2d ed.); Maspero, Dawn of Civilisation; Wiedemann, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians, and article "Religion of Egypt" in Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible, vol. v; Erman, Handbook of Egyptian Religion; Breasted, History of Egypt.

1247 Breasted, op. cit., pp. 36, 46; id., Ancient Records of Egypt, under the various kings.

1248 So Ed. Meyer, in article "Horos" in Roscher's Lexikon.

1249 So Steindorff, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians, p. 26 f.

1250 Cf. Steindorff, op. cit., p. 30 f.

1251 Records of the Past, vi, 105 ff.; Steindorff, op. cit., p. 107 ff.

1252 See, for example, the hymn in Records of the Past, viii, 105 ff.

1253 He was, therefore, doubtless a god of fertility.

1254 Records of the Past, ii, 129 ff. The names of other deities also were combined with that of Ra.

1255 Egyptian civilization, as appears from recent explorations, began far back of Menes; cf. Ed. Meyer, Geschichte des Altertums, 2d ed., vol. i, part ii, § 169.

1256 Cf. Breasted, History of Egypt, p. 58; Frazer, Adonis Attis Osiris, bk. iii, chap. v.

1257 Plutarch, Isis and Osiris, 18; Frazer, loc. cit.; Breasted, op. cit., p. 171 f.

1258 His identification by some ancient theologians with the sun (Frazer, op. cit., p. 351 f.) or with the moon (Plutarch, op. cit., 41) is an illustration of the late tendency to identify any great god with a heavenly body.

1259 Such is the wording given by Proclus. The form in Plutarch (Isis and Osiris, 9) is substantially the same: "I am all that has been and that is and that shall be, and my veil no mortal has lifted." See Roscher, Lexikon, article "Nit," col. 436. Doubts have been cast on the reality of the alleged inscription.

1260 Maspero, Dawn of Civilization, p. 131.

1261 So Ed. Meyer, in Roscher, Lexikon, article "Isis," col. 360.

1262 Steindorff, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians, p. 107 ff.

1263 See Drexler, in Roscher, Lexikon, article "Isis," col. 424 ff.

1264 Barth, The Religions of India (Eng. tr.); Hopkins, Religions of India; Hillebrandt, Vedische Mythologie; Macdonell, Vedic Mythology, Bloomfield, Religion of the Veda. See the bibliography in Hopkins, op. cit., p. 573 ff.

1265 Rig-Veda, viii, 41, 1. 7; i, 23, 5 (ṛta, 'order').

1266 Rig-Veda, x, 121.

1267 Early imagination apparently connected the future social life of gods and men not with the calm sky, but with the upper region that was the scene of constant and awful movements. But the ground of the choice of Indra as lord of heaven rests in the obscurity of primeval times.

1268 For economic reasons a rain-god must generally be prominent and popular.

1269 § 703.

1270 The history of this distinction between Dyaus and Varuna is lost in the obscurity of the beginnings.

1271 This conception appears in germinal form in Rig-Veda, v, 84, vi, 515, but is not there or elsewhere developed.

1272 Macdonell, Vedic Mythology, § 20.

1273 Cf. Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, article "Bengal," p. 491 ff., and the references there given to authorities.

1274 One form of Çaktism is described (in Hastings, loc. cit.) as being the general worship of the Mothers of the universe represented as the wives of the gods.

1275 Rig-Veda, x, 64, 92, 135, 21, 52, 14.

1276 Ibid., x, 14; ix, 113. However, this title is given to Varuna also (x, 14): Yama and Varuna are the two kings whom the dead man sees when he reaches heaven.

1277 Ibid., x, 10, 13, 14 (cf. Atharva-Veda, xviii, 13).

1278 Hillebrandt, Vedische Mythologie, i, 394 ff., but only for the Indo-Iranian period.

1279 Rig-Veda, x, 64.

1280 Cf. Müller, Lectures on the Science of Language, second series, p. 534 f.; Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii, 314; Bergaigne, La religion védique, ii, 94, note 3; Frobenius, Childhood of Man, chap. xxii. Cf. the Egyptian conception of Osiris (Maspero, Dawn of Civilisation, p. 195).

1281 Matthews, Navaho Legends, p. 80; other examples are given in W. Ellis's Polynesian Researches, i, chap. v, and Tylor, op. cit., ii, 312 ff.

1282 Ellis, loc. cit.; Dorsey, The Skidi Pawnee, p. 6.

1283 Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 128 ff.; Macdonell, Vedic Mythology, § 77; Bloomfield, Religion of the Veda, Index, s.v. Yama; and see the references in these works to other authors.

1284 Jewish Encyclopædia, articles "Adam" and "Adam Kadmon"; Koran, ii, 29 ff.; cf. 1 Cor. xv, 45 ff.

1285 See above. §§ 67 ff., 82.

1286 On the relation between the two "first ancestors," Yama and Manu, cf. Bloomfield, op. cit., p. 140 f.

1287 Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 379 ff.

1288 Tiele-Gehrich, Geschichte der Religion im Altertum, vol. ii, part i.

1289 See above, § 703. Cf. articles by L. H. Mills in Journal of the American Oriental Society, vols. xx and xxi; L. H. Gray, in Archiv für Religionswissenschaft, vii (1904), p. 345.

1290 Records of the Past, vols. v, ix.

1291 Many lesser divine beings are mentioned by Spiegel (in Eranische Alterthumskunde, ii, 66 ff.); the advance to a real monotheistic cult was not achieved in Persia without many generations of struggle.

1292 Cf. the similar process in the Arabian treatment of the jinn (W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, new ed., p. 122 f.).

1293 Cf. A. V. Williams Jackson, Zoroaster, and his sketch in Geiger and Kuhn's Grundriss der iranischen Philologie; D. Menant, Zoroaster d'après la tradition parsie, in Annales du Musée Guimet, vol xxx.

1294 De Groot, Religion of the Chinese, chaps. i and iii; pp. 62 ff., 112 f., 129 f.

1295 With this conception we may compare the similar principles in the Vedic and Mazdean systems.

1296 The all-controlling order, as is remarked above, is that of the universe, which furnishes the norm for human life; but in the universe the grandest object is heaven.

1297 Legge, in Sacred Books of the East, xxxix, xl; De Groot, Religious System of China, and his smaller works, Religion of the Chinese and Development of Religion in China.

1298 W. E. Griffis, Religions of Japan; E. Buckley, in Saussaye, Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte, 2d ed.; Aston, Shinto; Knox, Development of Religion in Japan; Longford, The Story of Old Japan, chap. ii.

1299 Whether the worship of ancestors, now so important an element of the national life, is native or borrowed is uncertain.

1300 W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, new ed., p. 13 ff.

1301 Compare Baethgen, Beiträge sur semitischen Religionsgeschichte, p. 262 f.

1302 Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria; id., Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in Babylonia and Assyria; Jeremias, in Saussaye, Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte; Zimmern, article "Babylonians and Assyrians" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics; Ed. Meyer, Geschichte des Altertums, i, part ii, 2d book. In our survey of Babylonian deities the question of Sumerian influence may be left out of the account.

1303 Compare Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 481; id., Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 23, 45, 121.

1304 Ezek. viii, 16.

1305 Jastrow, Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in Babylonia and Assyria, p. 82. The Babylonian and Assyrian triads were loosely constructed, and had, apparently, no significance for the local and royal cults. In this regard they differed from the Egyptian triads and enneads, which were highly elaborated and organised (Maspero, Dawn of Civilisation, p. 104 ff.; Breasted, History of Egypt, p. 56.; Steindorff, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians, p. 29).

1306 Cf. article "Astarte" (by Ed. Meyer) in Roscher, Lexikon.

1307 For the cuneiform material see Delitzsch, Assyrisches Handwörterbuch, and, for various etymologies proposed for the name, Barton, Semitic Origins, p. 102 ff.; Haupt, in Journal of the American Oriental Society, xxviii, 112 ff.; Barton, ibid., xxxi, 355 ff. The frequent expression ilani u ishtarâti, 'gods and goddesses,' suggests that the original sense of ishtar is simply 'a deity'; it is not probable that a proper name would become a common noun and have a plural; cf. the treatment of the title ilu, 'a god.'

1308 As the title bel, 'lord,' became the proper name of a particular god, so the title ishtar, 'mistress,' 'lady,' might become the proper name of a particular goddess; in neither case is the detailed history of the process known to us.

1309 They were probably local "lords"; in Moab Ashtar was combined with a deity called Kemosh, of whom nothing is known except that he was a Moabite national god (cf. G. F. Moore, article "Chemosh" in Encyclopædia Biblica). For a different view of Ashtar and Athtar see Barton, Semitic Origins, Index, s.vv. Chemosh, Athtar; he regards these deities as transformations of the mother-goddess Ashtart.

1310 Baethgen, Beiträge zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte, p. 66 ff.; Jeremias, "Syrien und Phönizien" (in Saussaye's Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte).

1311 Rawlinson, History of Phœnicia; Pietschmann, Geschichte der Phönizier; Jeremias, op. cit.

1312 Article "Esmun" in Roscher's Lexikon; article in Orientalische Studien Nöldeke gewidmet. Of the vague group known as the Kabiri (the 'great ones,' seven in number, with Eshmun as eighth) we have little information; on the diffusion of their cult in Grecian lands see Roscher, op. cit., article "Megaloi Theoi."

1313 Wellhausen, Reste arabischen Heidentumes, pp. 21 ff., 45 ff.; W. R. Smith, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia, chap. vi, note 8; chap. viii, note 2; article "Dusares" in the Anthropological Essays presented to F. W. Putnam.

1314 Mordmann, Himyarische Inschriften; Mordmann and Müller, Sabäische Denkmäler; Barton, Semitic Origins, p. 127 ff.

1315 His original seat is uncertain; by some scholars he is regarded as an old North Semitic deity, but the grounds for this view are not convincing. The occurrences of the name outside of the Hebrew region throw little or no light on his origin. Cf. Delitzsch, Paradies; Baudissin, Studien sur semitischen Religionsgeschichte; Barton, Semitic Origins, chap. vii.

1316 On his position in the seventh century cf. W. F. Bade, in Transactions of the American Philological Association, 1908.

1317 For the Old Testament statements see C. G. Montefiore, Origin and Growth of Religion as illustrated by the Religion of the Ancient Hebrews (Hibbert Lectures, 1892), Index, s.v. Yahweh.

1318 He was thus supreme for the particular tribe, though not universal; cf. article "Arabs (Ancient)" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

1319 Farnell, Cults of the Greek States; Gruppe, Griechische Mythologie; articles on the various deities in Roscher's Lexikon.

1320 Formally the names Dyaus, Zeus, and Ju (in Jupiter) are identical; and to these may probably be added the Teutonic Tiu (Tyr).

1321 In early thought the sky (like the earth) is in itself a powerful thing, a personality, and the god who is later supposed to inhabit and control it is a definite figure, like, for example, a tree-god.

1322 From the ancient notices of Kronos it is hardly possible to fix definitely the relation between him and Zeus. It is probable that he represents an older cult that was largely displaced by that of Zeus. The custom of human sacrifice in his cult led to the identification of him with the Phœnician (Carthaginian) Melek (Moloch), and his name has been interpreted (from κραίνω) as meaning 'king' (= melek); but this resemblance does not prove a Semitic origin for him. Whether his rôle as king of the Age of Gold was anything more than a late construction is not clear.

1323 The etymology of his name is doubtful.

1324 On his titles "earth-shaker" and "earth-upholder" cf. Gruppe, Griechische Mythologie p. 1139, note 2.

1325 Possibly he was originally the ocean itself conceived of as a living and powerful thing, as Zeus (and so Varuna and Ahura Mazda) was originally the physical sky; Okeanos is a great god (Iliad, xiv, 201; Hesiod, Theogony, 133).

1326 By many writers he is considered to have been originally a wind-god; but wind, though it might suggest swiftness (and, with some forcing, thievishness), cannot account for his other endowments.

1327 Gen. xxx, 37 ff.; xxxi, 9; Wellhausen, Reste arabischen Heidentumes, p. 196; Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, ii, 17-19.

1328 Odyssey, xv, 319 f. Lang lays too much stress on this fact (Myth, Ritual, and Religion, 1st ed., ii, 257).