The Project Gutenberg e-Book of Introduction to the History of Religions by Crawford Howell Toy, 'Handbooks on the History of Religions, Volume 4'

1329 Gruppe (Griechische Mythologie, p. 1384) thinks (on grounds not clear) that he was originally of Crete.

1330 So Gruppe, op. cit.

1331 Homeric Hymn to Pan.

1332 Servius on Vergil, Eclogue ii, 31.

1333 Roscher, in Lexikon, article "Pan," col. 1405, and in Festschrift für Joh. Overbeck, p. 56 ff. On the influence of the Egyptian cult of the goat-god of Mendes on the conception of Pan see Roscher, Lexikon, article "Pan," cols. 1373, 1382.

1334 Mannhardt, Antike Wald und Feldkulte, p. 135 f.; Roscher, op. cit., col. 1406; Farnell, Cults of the Greek States, v, 431, and many others. To this etymology Gruppe (op. cit., p. 1385) objects that such a name for a deity is not probable for primitive savage times; he offers nothing in its place.

1335 Plutarch, De Defectu Oraculorum, 17; Reinach, Orpheus (Eng. tr.), p. 41.

1336 Pindar, ed. W. Christ, Fragments, 95 ff.

1337 Theogony, 922 f.

1338 Euripides, Bacchæ, 131 f. (cf. Æschylus, The Seven against Thebes, 541; Porphyry, De Abstinentia, § 13).

1339 Nili Opera, p. 27; Smith, Religion of the Semites, 2d ed., p. 338 f.; Spencer, Principles of Sociology, i, 288.

1340 See above, § 384 ff.

1341 Iliad, xiv, 325.

1342 Perhaps the description of him in the Iliad (loc. cit.) as "a joy to mortals" refers to wine; cf. Hesiod, Theogony, 941, where he is called the "bright joyous one."

1343 As, for example, the Arabian clan god Dusares (Dhu ash-Shara), carried by the Nabateans northward, was brought into relation with the viticulture of that region. Cf. above, § 764.

1344 On this point cf. Miss J. Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion, p. 366.

1345 See above, § 680 f.

1346 Iliad, xv, 184 ff.; Hesiod, Theogony, 453 ff.

1347 He is not always in mythological constructions distinct from Zeus—in Iliad, ix, 457, it is Zeus Katachthonios who is lord below.

1348 Æschylus, Prometheus Bound, 806.

1349 Cf. the development of Osiris (above, § 728).

1350 Cf. Greek Horkos, and the oath by the Styx.

1351 Cf. Miss Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion, chap. vi.

1352 Cf. Roscher, Lexikon, s.v.; Miss Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion, p. 271 ff.

1353 Compare Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, p. 320 ff.; Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., ii, 176 ff.

1354 Compare Miss Harrison, op. cit., p. 271 ff.

1355 By her name she is identified with the hearth, as similarly Zeus is identified with the sky. The hearth was the center of the home, and had wide cultic significance. The name Hestia embodies not the divinization of a concrete object, but the recognition of the divine person presiding over the object in question.

1356 Roscher, Lexikon; Farnell, Cults of the Greek States.

1357 Odyssey, xx, 71.

1358 The representation of her as the slayer of women with her "kindly arrows" (Odyssey, xx, 67), that is, by an easy death, is in keeping with the early idea that death was caused by some supernatural Power; so Apollo slays (Iliad, xxiv, 759).

1359 Leto is a Titaness (Hesiod, Theogony, 404 ff.), an old local goddess, naturally a patron of children, and so of similar nature with Artemis, with whom she was often joined in worship. Her connection with Apollo arose possibly from a collocation of her cult with his in some place; in such collocations the goddess would become, in mythological constructions, the mother, sister, or wife of the god. This relation once established, stories explaining it would spring up as a matter of course. The fact that she was later identified with the Asian Great Mother indicates that she also had a universal character.

1360 Hesiod, Theogony, 411 ff.

1361 She was, perhaps, an underground deity, or the product of the fusion of two deities, one of whom was chthonic.

1362 Farnell, Cults of the Greek States; Roscher, Lexikon.

1363 Thus the Greeks endeavored to embody in divine figures all sides of family life. The division of functions between Hera, Hestia, and Athene is clear.

1364 As, for example, 'fragile' and 'frail,' 'intension' and 'intention,' 'providential' and 'prudential,' and many other groups of this sort.

1365 For the view that she was a native Ægean deity see Farnell, Greece and Babylon, p. 97. Later Semitic influences, in any case, must be assumed.

1366 No satisfactory explanation of the name Aphrodite has as yet been offered.

1367 See above, § 762.

1368 Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite; Euripides, Medea, 835 ff.; Lucretius. Ishtar also is the mother of all things, but the idea is not developed by the Semites.

1369 Compare the details given in J. Rosenbaum's Geschichte der Lustseuche im Alterume.

1370 Aust, Religion der Römer; Fowler, Roman Festivals; id. The Religious Experience of the Roman People; articles in Roscher's Lexikon; Mommsen, History of Rome (Eng. tr.), bk. i, chap. xii.

1372 Hence a confusion of names that appears even to-day, and in books otherwise careful, as, for example, in the Bohn translations of Greek works, in which the Greek deities are throughout called by Latin names.

1373 So written in good manuscripts. The "piter" probably denotes fatherly protection, though it may have meant originally physical paternity. On this point cf. W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, lecture ii, and the various stories of the birth of Jupiter's children.

1374 On the significance of the doublefaced Janus (Janus Geminus) and of the ancient usage of opening the gates of his temple in time of war and closing them in time of peace, see article "Janus" in Roscher's Lexikon, col. 18 ff.

1375 With his function as door-god compare the functions of other Roman door-gods, of Vesta, and of Hindu and other house-deities.

1376 Varro, De Lingua Latina, v, 85; Cato, De Agri Cultura, 141.

1377 So Roscher and others.

1378 Cf. Fowler, Roman Festivals, p. 35.

1379 The cult of Mars was widely diffused in Italy and, later, elsewhere. His original seat is uncertain. He was, perhaps, the tribal god of a conquering people.

1380 Cf. also the Ancillarum Feriæ (July 7).

1381 See above, § 217 ff.

1382 Vergil, Eclogues, iv, 6. Cf. above, § 768, note (Kronos).

1383 Aust, Religion der Römer; Farnell, Cults of the Greek States; Fowler, Roman Festivals; articles in Roscher's Lexikon.

1384 She appears to have been a Greek deity adopted by the Romans.

1385 See above, § 43.

1386 Compare the Greek Hestia and the Hindu house-goddess (Hopkins, Religions of India, pp. 374, 530).

1387 On the Arician Diana see Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., i, 230 f.

1388 Or, better, from deiā.

1389 The prevailing view is that the grove is an opened place into which light enters, and it is thus distinguished from the dark and gloomy forest. The verbs nitere, nitescere, virere, are used by Ovid and other writers to describe this gleaming of leaves, plants, trees, groves, and of the earth.

1390 An early divine name expressive of intellectual power is not probable.

1391 On her origin cf. Wissowa, Religion der Römer, p. 203 ff.

1392 Varro, De Re Rustica, i, 1.

1393 See above, § 803.

1394 In favor of Ardea, twenty miles south of Rome, as her original seat, cf. Wissowa, Religion der Römer, p. 235.

1395 Her identification with the Greek goddess was perhaps furthered by a supposed relation between her name and the noun venustas, 'grace, beauty,' the special quality of Aphrodite. If that was the original sense of 'Venus,' it could hardly have indicated an æsthetic perception of nature (Wissowa, op. cit.); such a designation would be foreign to early ways of naming deities. Whether the stem van might mean 'general excellence' (here agricultural) is uncertain; on the Greek epithets 'Kallisto,' 'Kalliste,' and so forth, cf. Gruppe, Griechische Mythologie, p. 1270 f. The name 'Venus,' if connected with the root of venerari, might mean simply 'a revered object,' a deity; cf. Bona Dea and Ceres (creator).

1396 Roscher's Lexikon, s.v. "Fortuna," col. 1518; Fowler, Roman Festivals, p. 68. On licentious cults of Venus cf. J. Rosenbaum, Geschichte der Lustseuche im Altertume.

1397 See above, § 671.

1398 Articles in Roscher, Lexikon, and in Orientalische Studien Nöldeke gewidmet.

1399 Inscriptions of Rammannirari and Nebuchadrezzar (Birs Nimrud); Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, Index, s.v.; id., Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in Babylonia and Assyria, Index, s.v. Adad.

1400 There is no separate god of Sheol in the Old Testament. On Eve as such a deity see Lidzbarski, Ephmeris, i, 26; cf. Cook, North Semitic Inscriptions, 135.

1401 Gen. vi, 4, cf. Ezek. xxxii, 27; Philo of Byblos; Harper, Assyrian and Babylonian Literature.

1402 Isa. lxiii, 16 ("God is our father, though Abraham and Israel do not acknowledge us") is regarded by some commentators as pointing to ancestor-worship. It seems, however, to be nothing more than the complaint of persons who were disowned by the community or by the leaders.

1404 Jastrow, Religions of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 168: "a pantheon of demons."

1405 Isa. xxxiv, 14.

1406 Satan is one of the Elohim-beings, old gods subordinated to Yahweh, and Azazel, if his name contains the divine title el, must be put into this class.

1407 Wisdom of Solomon, ii, 24.

1408 Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion, chap. v. On Hindu demons see Hopkins, Religions of India, Index, s.v. Devils.

1409 §§ 698 ff., 398 ff.

1410 See below, Chapter vii. Here, again, Mazdaism forms an exception, resembling the Semitic scheme rather than the Hindu.

1411 A partial exception is found in the comparatively late movement from the south of Arabia over into Africa (Abessinia, Ethiopia).

1412 On the characteristics of the various great religions see Hegel, Religionsphilosphe; Santayana, Reason in Religion (vol. iii of The Life of Reason); E. Caird, Evolution of Religion; R. B. Perry, Approach to Philosophy; S. Johnson, Oriental Religions; J. F. Clarke, Ten Great Religions; S. Reinach, Orpheus. See below, Chapter ix.

1413 But a certain substratum is usually assumed, no attempt being made to account for its existence.

1414 Cf. Tylor, Primitive Culture, chaps. viii-x; Jastrow, Study of Religion, Index, s.vv. Myth, Mythology; Lang, Custom and Myth, and Myth, Ritual, and Religion; articles "Mythologie" in La Grande Encyclopédie, and "Mythology" in Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th ed.

1415 Belief in miracles, which is found in some higher religions, may here be left out of the account as belonging in a separate category.

1416 Lang, Myth, Ritual, and Religion, chaps. ii-iv.

1417 So with the theory of universal borrowing from one center advocated by Stucken (Astralmythen), Winckler (Himmels- und Weltensbild der Babylonier als Grundlage der Weltanschauung und Mythologle aller Völker), Jeremias (Das Alte Testament im Lichte des Alten Orients), Jensen (Das Gilgamesch Epos), and others.

1418 Cf. article "Cosmogony and Cosmology" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

1420 Çatapatha Brahmana, xi, 1, 6, 1.

1421 R. B. Dixon, The Northern Maidu, p. 335 f.

1422 Spiegel (Eranische Alterthumskunde, ii, 144) ascribes to the Eranians the conception of creation out of nothing. See also the Hawaiian representation of the origin of all things from the primeval void, and the orderly sequence of the various forms of life.

1423 A. Lang, Myth, Ritual, and Religion chap. vi ff.

1424 See, for example, the two accounts of creation in the Book of Genesis. In the earlier account (chap. ii) the procedure of Yahweh is mechanical, and things do not turn out as he intended; in the later account (chap. i) there is no mention of a process—it is the divine word that calls the world into being.

1425 Dixon, The Northern Maidu, p. 263.

1426 See R. Andree, Die Flutsagen; article "Flood" in Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible.

1427 Matthews, Navaho Legends, p. 37; cf. Dorsey, The Skidi Pawnee, p. 14 ff.

1428 Grey, Polynesian Mythology, p. 57 f.; cf. Tylor, Primitive Culture, i, 335.

1429 Callaway, The Amazulu, pp. 3, 4, 100, 138.

1430 Gen. v; vi, 4; Herodotus, iii, 23; Roscher, Lexikon, s.v. Giganten; cf. Tylor, op. cit., i, 385 ff.; Brinton, American Hero-Myths, p. 88.

1431 Brinton, Religions of Primitive Peoples, p. 126 f.; Maspero, Dawn, p. 158; Gen. ii, iii; Avesta, Vendidad, Fargard ii; Spiegel, Eranische Alterthumskunde, i, 463 ff.; Windischmann, Zoroastrische Studien, p. 19 ff.; Hopkins, in Journal of the American Oriental Society (September, 1910), pp. 362, 366; article "Hesperiden" in Roscher's Lexikon; commentaries of Kalisch, Dillmann, Driver, Skinner, and others on Gen. ii, iii; Jewish Encyclopædia, s.v. Paradise; Delitzsch, Wo lag das Paradies? On the character of the abode of the Babylonian Parnapishtim see Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 488, 496.

1432 2 Pet. iii, 7, contrast with the old destruction by water; Hindu eschatology.

1433 The Norse myth of "the twilight of the gods" has perhaps been colored, in its latest form, by Christian eschatology.

1434 Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 421; Spiegel, Eranische Alterthumskunde, ii, 161; H. Warren, Buddhism in Translations, p. 315 ff.

1435 Matthews, Navaho Legends, p. 63 ff.

1436 Hartland, Primitive Paternity, chap. i.

1437 Grey, Polynesian Mythology, chap. i.

1438 Maspero, Dawn, p. 128 f.

1439 Aitareya Brahmana, iv, 27.

1440 Hollis, The Masai, p. 279; cf. Turner, Samoa, p. 198.

1441 Gruppe, Griechische Culte und Mythen. Cf. the birth-myth in Matthews, Navaho Legends, p. 71.

1442 So Heracles, Achilles, Æneas, and the heroes mentioned in Gen. vi, 4.

1444 So in Polynesia, North America, China, ancient Greece, and among the Hebrews.

1445 As, for example, the Hebrews (Deut. xxxii, 8 f.)

1446 Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, p. 119 ff.; Taylor, New Zealand, chap. xiv and p. 325; Turner, Samoa, p. 3 ff.; J. G. Müller, Geschichte der amerikanischen Urreligionen, pp. 33 ff., 179 ff., § 61.

1447 So the Hindu Manu (man), or Father Manu (Rig-Veda, ii, 33, 13), is the progenitor of the human race. Cf. the "first man," Yama. For the Old-Persian genealogical scheme see Spiegel, Eranische Alterthumskunde, i, 473, 500 ff.

1449 Codrington, The Melanesians, p. 156 ff.; Réville, Native Religions of Mexico and Peru, p. 64; Brinton, Myths of the New World, p. 264, and American Hero-Myths, pp. 186 f., 195 ff.; cf. R. B. Brehm, Das Inka-Reich, p. 24 ff.

1450 Jastrow, Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in Babylonia and Assyria, p. 89.

1451 Gen. iv, 16 ff.

1452 Gen. vi, 1, 2, 4 (verse 3 is an interpolation).

1453 Herodotus, v, 57 f.; Roscher, Lexikon, s.v. Kadmos.

1454 Rig-Veda, i, 93, 6.

1455 Hesiod, Works and Days, 49 ff.

1456 In the story in Genesis (ii, 17; iii, 5, 22-24) there is a trace of such jealousy; and it is by violation of the command of the deity that man attains the knowledge of good and evil.

1457 L. Frobenius, Childhood of Man, chap. xxv (and cf. chap. xxvi).

1459 Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, p. 394 ff.

1460 See above, § 153 ff.

1462 Ex. iv, 24-26; Josh. v, 2 ff.

1463 W. Matthews, Navaho Legends, p. 40 ff.; J. W. Fewkes, The Winter Solstice Ceremony at Walpi.

1464 Réville, Native Religions of Mexico and Peru (Hibbert Lectures), pp. 94 f., 110 (cf. ib., p. 224 f., on Peruvian dances). See above, § 109, note 6.

1465 Gen. xxxii, 24 ff.

1466 Fowler, Roman Festivals, p. 38.

1467 Fowler, op. cit., p. 99 ff.; for another view see Roscher, Lexikon, article "Maia II"; cf. Wissowa, Religion der Römer, p. 185.

1468 Augustine, De Civitate Dei, 18, 9.

1469 Judg. xi, 30 ff.

1470 Plutarch, Theseus, 27.

1471 F. B. Jevons, Introduction to the History of Religion, chap. xxiii f.; Miss J. E. Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion, chap. x; K. H. E. de Jong, Das antike Mysterienwesen, pp. 14, 16, 18; Preller, "Eleusinia" in Pauly's Realencyclopädie; Reitzenstein, Hellenistische Mysterienreligion.