The Project Gutenberg e-Book of Introduction to the History of Religions by Crawford Howell Toy, 'Handbooks on the History of Religions, Volume 4'

1756 On the ceremony of mourning for Tammuz (Ezek. viii, 14) see Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 574 ff.; Pseudo-Lucian, De Syria Dea. In Babylonia the ceremony appears to have been an official lament for the loss of vegetation (the women mourners being attached to the temple); in Syria (Hierapolis) it took on orgiastic elements (perhaps an importation from Asia Minor). The women of Ezek. viii were attached, probably, to the service of the temple.

1757 Barth, Religions of India; Hopkins, Religions of India; Macdonell, Vedic Mythology; Lang, Myth, Ritual, and Religion, Index.

1758 This is true of all mythical and legendary creations of the thought of communities, but in an especial degree of the Greek.

1759 Saussaye, Religion of the Teutons, Index, s.v. Myths; he distinguishes between the earlier and the later stories; R. M. Meyer, Altgermanische Religionsgeschichte, chaps. iii, iv.

1760 Folk-lore and legend mingle with the myths.

1761 See R. M. Meyer, op. cit., p. 444 ff.

1762 Even in great modern religions nominally monotheistic a virtual polytheism continues to exist.

1763 See above, § 683 ff.

1764 This conception survives in the great polytheistic cults, and may be recognized in the later religions of redemption.

1765 Compare the Brazilian Tapuyas (Botocudos); see article "Brazil" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

1766 For West Africa cf. A. B. Ellis, Yoruba, p. 87; Tshi, chaps. iii-viii; Eẃe, chaps. iii-v.

1767 § 365 ff. On this attitude see the reports of the religions of particular peoples and the summaries of such reports in dictionaries and encyclopedias, and in such works as Steinmetz, Ethnologische Studien zur ersten Entwicklung der Strafe; Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas; also articles in the Journal of the Anthropological Institute, the reports of the American Bureau of Ethnology, and similar publications.

1768 Theoph. Hahn, Tsuni-Goam, p. 38.

1769 Hollis, The Masai, p. 264 f.

1770 Skeat, Malay Magic, pp. 93 ff., 320 ff.

1771 Batchelor, The Ainu, pp. 193 f., 200.

1772 Wellhausen, Reste arabischen Heidentumes, p. 135 ff.; W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, Index, s.v. Jinn.

1773 R. C. Temple, article "Andamans" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

1774 For example, by Waitz, Anthropologie, iii, pp. 182 f., 330, 334 f.; Waitz expresses doubt (p. 345) as to the correctness of certain accounts of the religious ideas of the Oregon tribes.

1775 Gatschet, Migration Legend of the Creeks, p. 215 f., Brinton, The Lenâpé, p. 67 f.; Dorsey, The Skidi Pawnee, p. xviii f.; Dixon, The Shasta, p. 491 ff.

1776 On methods of accounting for the existence of death in the world see above, § 834.

1777 Brébeuf's account is given in Relation des Jésuites dans la nouvelle France, 1635, p. 34; 1636, p. 100; cf. the edition of the Relation by R. G. Thwaites, viii, 116 ff.; x, 126 f. Brébeuf appears to have followed Sagard, Canada (see Troas ed., p. 452 ff.). The story is discussed by Brinton, in Myths of the New World, 3d ed., p. 79 ff., and his criticism is adopted by Tylor, Primitive Culture, 3d ed., ii, 322.

1778 Brinton, op. cit., p. 77.

1779 Cf. Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii, 334 ff.; article "Algonquins" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, pp. 320, 323.

1780 Batchelor, The Ainu, and his article in Hastings, op. cit.

1781 Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 528 ff. The influence of Brahmanism is possible here; but cf. Hopkins, op. cit., p. 530, note 3.

1782 Maspero, Dawn of Civilization, pp. 172, 202; Breasted, History of Egypt, p. 571; Steindorff, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians, p. 67 ff.

1783 This myth may have trickled down to them (through the Canaanites or in some other way) in subdued form—it appears, perhaps, in the serpent of Gen. iii; but it seems to have been adopted in full form at a later time, apparently in or after the sixth century B.C.

1784 Rohde, Psyche, Index, s.v. Erinyen; articles "Ate," "Erinys," in Roscher's Lexikon.

1785 On the diverse elements in Loki's character, and on his diabolification, see Saussaye, Religion of the Teutons, p. 259 ff.; R. M. Meyer, Altgermanische Religionsgeschichte, p. 335 ff. (Loki as fire-god developed out of a fire-demon).

1786 Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, article "Celts," p. 289. On the anthropinizing or the distinctly euhemerizing treatment of these two personages see Rhys, Celtic Folklore, Index, s.vv.

1787 Hopkins, Religions of India, pp. 367, 377, 414.

1788 See above, § 857.

1789 It has been suggested that climatic conditions (sharp contrasts of storm and calm, with consequent strain and peace in life) led to this dual arrangement. But we do not know that there were specially strong contrasts of weather in the Iranian home, and there is no mention of such a situation in the early documents, in which the complaint is of inroads of predatory bands from the steppe.

1790 See above, § 742 ff.

1791 According to Diogenes Laertius, Proem, viii.

1792 To designate the unfriendly supernatural Powers two terms meaning 'divine beings' were available, 'asuras' and 'divas' (daevas); the Hindus chose the former, the Iranians the latter. Cf. Darmesteter, Ormazd et Ahriman, p. 268 ff.; Macdonell, Vedic Mythology, p. 156 ff.

1793 Zech. iii; Job i, ii; 1 Chron. xxi, 1, contrasted with 2 Sam. xxiv, 1; Enoch xl, 7; liii, 3, etc.; Secrets of Enoch (Slavonic Enoch), xxix, 4, 5; xxxi, 3, 4. The word Satan means 'adversary,' and, as legal adversary, 'accuser.' The germ of the conception is to be sought in the apparatus of spirits controlled by Yahweh, and sometimes employed by him as agents to harm men (1 Kings xxii, 19-23). The idea of an accusing spirit seems to have arisen from the necessity of explaining the misfortunes of the nation (Zech. iii); it was expanded under native and foreign influences.

1795 Koran, vii, 10 ff.

1796 So in the ceremonies of the pilgrimage to Mecca and in common life. The "satans" have in part coalesced with the jinn; see Lane's Arabian Nights, "Notes to the Introduction," note 21.

1797 Herzog-Hauck, Real-Encyklopädie, s.v. "Mani u. Manichäismus."

1798 On a lack of unity in the world see W. James, A Pluralistic Universe.

1800 So the Zulu Unkulunkulu, the Fiji Ndengei, the Virginia Ahone, and others.

1801 Compare Lang's sketch of the gods of the lower races in Myth, Ritual, and Religion, chap. xii f., and Making of Religion, preface and chaps. xii-xiv.

1802 Strachey, Historie of Travaile into Virginia Britannica (1612), p. 98 f. and chap. vii; Winslow, Relation (1624), printed in Young's Chronicles of the Pilgrim Fathers, see chap. xxiii.

1803 Cf. Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii, 324, 339.

1804 Callaway, The Amazulu, p. 1 ff.

1805 Howitt, Native Tribes of South-East Australia, Index (cf. Spencer and Gülen, Northern Tribes of Central Australia, p. 492); cf. Thomas, Natives of Australia, chap. xiii, and article "Australia" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

1806 Temple, article "Andamans" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

1807 Williams and Calvert, Fiji, chap. vii.

1808 Batchelor, The Ainu, chap. xvii; Taylor, New Zealand, chaps. v-vii; Rink, Danish Greenland, p. 204 ff.; Boas, The Kwakiutl, chap. vi.

1809 The confusion incident to savage theogonic reflection is illustrated by Zulu attempts to explain Unkulunkulu (Callaway, loc. cit.).

1810 Lang, in the works cited in the preceding paragraph, is right in his contention that the clan god is not always derived from a spirit; but the coloring he gives to the character of this sort of god is not in accordance with known facts.

1811 See above, § 746 ff.

1812 It is not probable that the recent abolition of the office of emperor (supposing the present revolutionary movement to maintain itself) will affect the essence of the existing cult.

1813 In place of the emperor some high official personage will doubtless be deputed to conduct the national sacrifices.

1814 De Groot, Religious System of China, Religion of the Chinese, and Development of Religion in China.

1815 Prescott, Conquest of Peru; Spence, Mythologies of Ancient Mexico and Peru.

1816 An approach to such a system appears in the later cult of Confucius.

1818 So later, for example, in Plato, necessity appears as something limiting the deity. See below, § 1001. Cf. Cicero, De Fato.

1819 Cf. the Chinese conception of the supreme order of the world. Possibly this goes back to the general savage conception of mana.

1820 Metaphysics, ix, 8; xii, 6 f.

1821 Timæus, 47 f.

1822 Stobæus, Elogæ, ed. Wachsmuth, lib. i, cap. i, no. 12; Pearson, Fragments of Zeno and Cleanthes; Eng. tr. in Arnold, Roman Stoicism, p. 85 ff. The quotation in Acts xvii, 28, may be from Cleanthes or from Aratus. On the Græco-Roman Stoicism and the relation between it and Christianity see Arnold, op. cit.

1823 Apuleius, Metamorphoses, bk. xi; Roscher, Lexikon, article "Isis"; Cumont, Mysteries of Mithra; id., Astrology and Religion among the Greeks and Romans, Index, s.vv. Isis and Serapis and Mithra.

1824 Metaphysics, i, 5: "The one is god."

1825 So in Goethe, Wordsworth, and other modern poets.

1826 In certain regions, especially in Tibet and Japan, Buddhism coalesces with popular nature-cults and shamanistic systems, and loses its nontheistic character.

1827 Cf. Satayana, "Lucretius," in his Three Philosophical Poets.

1828 The great exception is the resurrection of Jesus, regarded in the New Testament and by the mass of orthodox Christians as an historical fact, and one of infinite significance for the salvation of the world.

1829 An emotional element possessing moral force may exist in any religion; cf. below, §§ 1167, 1192, 1199.

1831 See above, Chapter iii.

1832 See above, §§ 128, 131, 231 ff.

1833 Cf. article "Charms and Amulets" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

1834 Cf. Marett, Threshold of Religion, p. 77 ff.

1835 Examples are found in J. H. King, The Supernatural, Index, s.v.; Tylor, Primitive Culture, Index, s.v.; L. T. Hobhouse, Morals in Evolution, Index, s.v.; and see the references in these works.

1836 See above, § 3.

1837 Spencer, Principles Of Sociology, i, 280 ff.; Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, ii, 550 al.

1838 Dorsey, Skidi Pawnee, p. 341; article "Bantu" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, ii, 359; Rivers, The Todas, p. 393; Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii, 392; Westermarck, op. cit., ii, 518 al.

1839 Tylor, op. cit., ii, 385, 395 al.; Gen. viii, 21.

1840 Batchelor, The Ainu; Miss Fletcher, Indian Ceremonies; Hollis, The Nandi, p. 12; Hopkins, Religions of India, pp. 449 ff. 528; Saussaye, Religion of the Teutons, pp. 373, 383; R. M. Meyer, Altgermanische Religionsgeschte, pp. 416, 419 ff.; N. W. Thomas, article "Animals" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics. Cf., for the Hebrews, W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, 2d ed., p. 217 ff.; for the Greeks, Gardner and Jevons, Greek Antiquities, p. 245 f.; Miss Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion, chap. x.

1841 Batchelor, The Ainu.

1842 A. C. Haddon, Head-hunters, p. 353 ff.

1843 F. H. Cushing, "My Adventures in Zuñi" in The Century Magazine for May, 1883.

1844 Cf. Hubert and Mauss, "Essai sur le sacrifice" in Année sociologique, ii (1898).

1845 A more socially refined conception appears in the lectisternium, in which the gods sit at table with their human friends. Cf. Wissowa, Religion der Römer, p. 355 ff.; Fowler, Religious Experience of the Roman People, Index, s.v.

1847 For the worshiper the blood had strengthening power.

1848 1 Kings, xvi, 34; article "Bridge" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

1849 Cf. Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, Index, s.v. Human Sacrifice.

1850 Breasted, History of Egypt, pp. 325, 411, 478.

1851 Pietschmann, Phönizier, p. 167; Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii, 403; 2 Kings, iii, 27; Exod. xiii; i, 13; Nöldeke, article "Arabs (Ancient)" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

1852 2 Kings, xvii, 31.

1853 Rig-Veda, x, 18, 8; viii, 51, 2.

1854 Sánkhayan Srauta Sutra, xvi, 10-14; Weber, Indische Streifen, i, 65; Hopkins, Religions of India, pp. 196, 198.

1855 Hopkins, op. cit., p. 326 ff. Cf. also the practice of the thugs, which has now been put a stop to by the British Government.

1856 De Groot, in Saussaye, Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte, 2d ed., p. 77 f.

1857 Saussaye, Religion of the Teutons, Index, s.v.

1858 Williams, Fiji; Turner, Samoa; Codrington, The Melanesians.

1859 Waitz-Gerland, Anthropologie der Naturvölker, Index; J. G. Müller, Geschichte der amerikanischen Urreligionen, Index; Gatschet, Migration Legend of the Creeks, p. 36.

1860 Payne, The New World, Called America. In Mexico the victim was surrounded with luxuries (including wives) and treated as a god for one year and then sacrificed (Frazer, Golden Bough, 1st ed., ii, 218 ff.; 2d ed., ii, 342 f.).

1861 A. B. Ellis, Tshi, Eẃe, and Yoruba.

1862 For such substitutions in Greece see Gardner and Jevons, Greek Antiquities, p. 243 f.

1863 Ellis, Yoruba.

1865 Alice Fletcher, Indian Ceremonies; Journal of American Folklore, vol. iv (1891), no. 15, and vol. xvii (1904), no. 64; Reports of the Bureau of Ethnology, vol xiv, p. 701.

1866 Cf. Tylor, Primitive Culture, Index, s.v. Sacrifice, and Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, Index, s.v. Sacrifice.

1867 Cf. Wissowa, Religion der Römer, p. 338 f.

1868 Religion of the Semites, 2d ed., p. 455.

1869 Lev. i-iv, viii, xvi, xxi; Numb. xix; Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 197 ff.; Gardner and Jevons, Greek Antiquities, Index, s.v. Priests and Sacrifices; Lippert, Geschichte des Priesterthums.

1871 De Abstinentia ii, 24.

1872 See below, § 1045 ff.

1873 Gen. iv, 3, 4; Lev. ii, al.

1874 Primitive Culture, ii, 375 ff.; cf. Spencer, Principles of Sociology, i, 280 ff.

1875 So often in ascetic practices.

1876 So, for example, in the Imitatio Christi.

1877 Euripides, Iphigeneia in Aulis, 1581 ff. (Iphigeneia); Gen. xxii (Isaac); and similar procedures in Hesiod, Theogony, 535 ff.; Ovid, Fasti, iii, 339 ff.; Aitareya Brahmana, ii, 8; Çatapatha Brahmana, i, 2, 3, 5.

1878 The expulsion of sin or evil in the person of a beast or a human being is a totally different conception. See above, § 143.

1881 Cf. §§ 128, 217 ff., 1023.

1882 Other examples are given in Fowler, Roman Festivals, pp. 81 (shepherd sacrifice), 96 (Feriæ Latinæ), 194 (at the temple of Hercules), and cf. his Religious Experience of the Roman People, Index, s.v. Meals, Sacrificial.

1883 Foucart, Des associations religieuses chez les Grecs. For the Isis ceremony cf. Apuleius, Metamorphoses, xi, 24 f.

1884 Cumont, The Mysteries of Mithra (Eng. tr.), p. 160. On the magical element in mysteries cf. De Jong, Das antike Mysterienwesen, chap. vi.

1885 See above, § 1024.

1886 Iliad, i, 66 f.; Odyssey, x, 518 ff.; Gen. viii, 21.

1887 So Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel (Eng. tr.), p. 62. In the Roman sacra gentilicia it was rather the divinized ancestors who were the guests—they were entertained by the living.

1888 In his article "Sacrifice" in Encyclopædia Brittanica (1886) and his Religion of the Semites (new ed., 1894).

1889 The assumption that the victim is a totem is not necessary to his argument, which rests on the sacredness (that is, the divinity) of the victim—a fact universally admitted.

1890 Isa. lxv, lxvi.

1891 Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia; id., Native Tribes of Northern Australia.

1892 On this point and on Smith's theory in general see the exposition of the theory by Jevons, Introduction to the History of Religion, chap. xii.