1 Dyrrachio (formerly Epidamnus, mod. Durazzo), a town in Illyria, on a peninsula in the Adriatic. It was the usual port of landing and departure from and for Brundisium (distant about 100 miles).
3 Tulliola, Cicero’s dearly-loved daughter Tullia, the only one of his family of whose conduct he never complains, and his tender and sympathising companion in all his pursuits.
4-5 qui casu . . . coloniae. Brundisium was founded 244 B.C. The Via Appia terminated here.
5 tuae vicinae Salutis, the Temple of Salus on the Quirinal was near the house of Atticus.
9 Quinti (sc. Ciceronis): Cicero’s only brother, a gallant soldier (e.g. as legatus to Caesar in Gaul), but a man of violent temper. Proscribed by the Triumvirs, and put to death in 43 B.C.
11-12 a Brundisinis . . . ornatus = having received attentions from the most respectable men of Brundisium.
13 legati = deputations, i.e. from the various towns en route.
14 nomenclatori (= lit. one who calls by name, cf. καλ-έω, Cal-endae): a confidential slave who attended his master in canvassing, and on similar occasions, and told him the names of the people he met.
18 ad portam Capenam (Porta S. Sebastiano), by which the Via Appia led to Capua. ‘Cicero, perhaps for effect, followed the line of triumphal procession.’—Impey.
CICERO’S RECANTATION, 56 B.C.
In praise of Caesar.
Itaque cum acerrimis nationibus et maximis Germanorum et Helvetiorum proeliis felicissime decertavit: ceteras conterruit, compulit, domuit, imperio populi Romani parere assuefecit, et quas regiones, quasque gentes nullae nobis antea litterae, 5 nulla vox, nulla fama notas fecerat, has noster imperator nosterque exercitus et populi Romani arma peragrarunt. Semitam tantum Galliae tenebamus antea, patres conscripti; ceterae partes a gentibus aut inimicis huic imperio, aut infidis, aut 10 incognitis, aut certe immanibus et barbaris et bellicosis tenebantur; quas nationes, nemo umquam fuit, quin frangi domarique cuperet; nemo sapienter de republica nostra cogitavit iam inde a principio huius imperi, quin Galliam maxime timendam huic 15 imperio putaret; sed propter vim ac multitudinem gentium illarum numquam est antea cum omnibus dimicatum. Restitimus semper lacessiti. Nunc denique est perfectum, ut imperii nostri terrarumque illarum idem esset extremum. 20
3 compulit = checked, usu. = to constrain.
5 nullae litterae = no book.
8 Semitam tantum Galliae = it was but a strip of Gaul.—W. F. Semita (se + mi = go aside, cf. meo, trames) = lit. a narrow way, path.
13-14 nemo . . . cogitavit = there never has been a prudent statesman.—W. F.
17 cum omnibus, i.e. with the Gauls as a nation.
19-20 ut imperi . . . extremum, i.e. that our Empire extends to the utmost limits of that land.
Cicero’s Recantation (παλινῳδία). The time for the struggle between the Senatorial party (the Optimates) and the Triumvirs, weakened by their mutual jealousy, seemed to have come. Accordingly Cicero proposed in a full house to reconsider Caesar’s Agrarian Law (of 59 B.C.) for the allotment of lands in Campania; while Domitius Ahenobarbus (candidate for next year’s Consulship) openly declared his intention to propose Caesar’s recall. Caesar acted with his usual promptness, and the Conference at Luca restored an understanding between the three regents. Pompeius then crossed to Sardinia, and informed Q. Cicero that he would be held reponsible for any act of hostility on the part of his brother. Cicero had no choice but to submit, and delivered in the Senate his oration de Provinciis Consularibus, a political manifesto on behalf of Caesar and Pompeius—the Recantation alluded to in Ep. ad Att. iv. 5, and elaborately explained in Ep. ad Fam. i. 9 (to Lentulus Spinther).
CARRHAE, 53 B.C. (1)
‘Quem deus vult perdere, prius dementat.’
Dum Gallos per Caesarem in septentrione debellat, ipse interim ad orientem grave volnus a Parthis populus Romanus accepit. Nec de fortuna queri possumus; caret solacio clades. Adversis et dis et hominibus cupiditas consulis Crassi, dum Parthico 5 inhiat auro, undecim strage legionum et ipsius capite multata est. Primum enim, qui solus et subvehere commeatus et munire poterat a tergo, relictus Euphrates, dum simulato transfugae cuidam Mazzarae Syro creditur. Tum in mediam camporum 10 vastitatem eodem duce ductus exercitus, ut undique hosti exponeretur. Itaque vixdum venerat Carrhas cum undique praefecti regis Silaces et Surenas ostendere signa auro sericisque vexillis vibrantia. Tunc sine mora circumfusi undique equitatus in 15 modum grandinis atque nimborum densa pariter tela fuderunt. Sic miserabili strage deletus exercitus. Ipse in colloquium sollicitatus signo dato vivus in hostium manus incidisset, nisi tribunis reluctantibus fugam ducis barbari ferro occupassent. Filium 20 ducis paene in conspectu patris eisdem telis operuerunt. Reliquiae infelicis exercitus, quo quemque rapuit fuga, in Armeniam Ciliciam Syriamque distractae vix nuntium cladis rettulerunt.
Context. By the conference of the Triumvirs at Luca, it was arranged to secure the succession of Crassus to the government of Syria, in order to make war on the growing strength of the Parthian Empire beyond the Euphrates. Consul with Pompeius in 55 B.C. he set out for his province even before the expiration of his consulship ‘eager to gather in the treasures of the East in addition to those of the West.’
7-14 Primum enim . . . vibrantia. The Arab prince Abgarus induced Crassus to leave the Euphrates, and cross the great Mesopotamian desert to the Tigris. When at length the enemy offered battle some 30 miles to the S. of Carrhae (Harran, not far from Edessa), by the side of the Parthian vizier stood prince Abgarus with his Bedouins.
15-17 Tunc sine mora . . . exercitus. The Roman weapons of close combat, and the Roman system of concentration yielded for the first time to cavalry and distant warfare (the bow).
20-21 Filium ducis: his young and brave son Publius, who had served with the greatest distinction under Caesar in Gaul.
22 Reliquiae: out of 40,000 Roman legionaries, who had crossed the Euphrates, not a fourth part returned: 20,000 fell, and 10,000 were taken prisoners.
Carrhae. ‘The day of Carrhae takes its place side by side with the days of the Allia, and of Cannae.’—M.
CARRHAE, 53 B.C. (2)
After the Battle.
Temporis angusti mansit concordia discors,
Paxque fuit non sponte ducum; nam sola futuri
100Crassus erat belli medius mora. Qualiter undas
Qui secat et geminum gracilis mare separat Isthmos
Nec patitur conferre fretum: si terra recedat,
Ionium Aegaeo frangat mare: sic, ubi saeva
Arma ducum dirimens miserando funere Crassus
105Assyrias Latio maculavit sanguine Carrhas,
Parthica Romanos solverunt damna furores.
Plus illa vobis acie quam creditis actum est,
Arsacidae: bellum victis civile dedistis.
98 Temporis . . . discors = the short-lived concord endured, but it was a jarring (discors) concord.—Haskins.
101 Isthmos, sc. of Corinth: Caesar planned to cut it, and thus to secure a direct route by sea, connecting Italy and the East.
102 Nec patitur . . . fretum = and suffers it (mare, l. 101) not to join its waters, i.e. the Corinthian and Saronic gulfs.
Milesne Crassi coniuge barbara
Turpis maritus vixit, et hostium
(Pro curia inversique mores!)
8Consenuit socerorum in armis
Sub rege Medo Marsus et Apulus,
Anciliorum et nominis et togae
Oblitus aeternaeque Vestae,
12Incolumi Iove et urbe Roma?
Nearly 10,000 Roman prisoners were settled by the victors in the oasis of Merv, as bondsmen compelled after the Parthian fashion to render military service (in armis, l. 8).
8 Consenuit: Carrhae (53 B.C.) was fought 26 years before this Ode was written (27 B.C.).
10-11 Anciliorum, aeternae Vestae, pledges of the immortality of Rome.
10 togae, i.e. the Roman people, the gens togata.
12 Iove, Jove’s temple on the Capitol.
Crassus ad Euphraten aquilas natumque suosque
Perdidit, et leto est ultimus ipse datus.
“Parthe, quid exsultas?” dixit dea, “signa remittes,
468Quique necem Crassi vindicet, ultor erit.”
467-468 During the last few months of his life, Caesar was occupied with the preparations for his expedition against the Parthians. In 36 B.C. Antonius carried on a disastrous campaign against Phraates, King of Parthia, but in 20 B.C. Augustus received from the King the Eagles (signa, l. 467) and prisoners captured at Carrhae.
CICERO, GOVERNOR OF CILICIA, 51-50 B.C.
His humane Administration.
Ipse in Asiam profectus sum Tarso Nonis Ianuariis, non mehercule dici potest, qua admiratione Ciliciae civitatum maximeque Tarsensium; postea vero quam Taurum transgressus sum, mirifica exspectatio Asiae nostrarum dioecesium, quae sex 5 mensibus imperii mei nullas meas acceperat litteras, numquam hospitem viderat. Illud autem tempus quotannis ante me fuerat in hoc quaestu; civitates locupletes, ne in hiberna milites reciperent, magnas pecunias dabant, Cyprii talenta Attica CC, qua ex 10 insula—non ὑπερβολικῶς, sed verissime loquor—nummus nullus me obtinente erogabatur. Ob haec beneficia, quibus illi obstupescunt, nullos honores mihi nisi verborum decerni sino; statuas, fana, τέθριππα prohibeo, nec sum in ulla re alia molestus 15 civitatibus, sed fortasse tibi, qui haec praedicem de me. Perifer, si me amas; tu enim me haec facere voluisti. Iter igitur ita per Asiam feci, ut etiam fames, qua nihil miserius est, quae tum erat in hac mea Asia—messis enim nulla fuerat—, mihi optanda 20 fuerit: quacumque iter feci, nulla vi, nullo iudicio, nulla contumelia auctoritate et cohortatione perfeci, ut et Graeci et cives Romani, qui frumentum compresserant, magnum numerum populis pollicerentur.
1 in Asiam, i.e. to the districts N. of the Taurus range, which belonged geographically to Asia in the Roman sense, but were politically attached to Cilicia.—Watson.
Tarso = on the R. Cydnus, about twelve miles above its mouth. Pompeius made Tarsus the capital of the new province of Cilicia, 66 B.C.
6-7 nullas meas . . . viderat = had never received demands (litteras) from me, never seen a man billeted on them. The hospites = soldiers or public officials.
8 fuerat in hoc quaestu = had been devoted to gain in the following fashion.—Tyrrell.
9 ne in hiberna milites reciperent: Mommsen says ‘A town suffered nearly to the same extent when a Roman army took up winter quarters in it as when an enemy took it by storm.’
15 τέθριππα = statues in chariots drawn by four horses.
20-21 mihi optanda fuerit: i.e. because it gave him the opportunity of showing the effect of his personal influence.—T.
23 compresserant = had stowed away; lit. kept back, rare.
Cicero as Governor. His administration seems to have been just, considerate and popular.
For Cicero’s Ideal of a Roman Governor, see Ep. ad Q. F. i. 1 (Q. Cicero governed Asia as Propraetor 62-58 B.C.)
CAUSES OF THE CIVIL WAR.
Nec quemquam iam ferre potest Caesarve priorem
Pompeiusve parem.
—Lucan.
56 B.C. By the Conference at Luca it was arranged:—
(i) to give Caesar a new term of five years’ government in which to complete his work in Gaul (until March 1, 49);
(ii) to give Pompeius the government of the two Spains, and Crassus that of Syria, for five years also.
It was further agreed that Pompeius and Crassus should have the consulship for 55 B.C.
52 B.C. Pompeius Sole Consul. So things continued until 52 B.C., when the constant rioting (Clodius v. Milo), and utter lawlessness prevailing in Rome gave Pompeius his opportunity. The Senate in their distress caused Pompeius to be nominated sole Consul, with supreme power to meet the crisis. The death of Julia in 54 and of Crassus in 53 had removed the two strongest influences for peace, and from 52 onwards the breach between Pompeius and Caesar began to widen.
During Caesar’s long absence from Rome his opponents, with Cato at their head, were waiting their chance to impeach him for numerous acts in his province, as soon as he appeared in Rome for the consular elections. He would then be merely a private citizen, and as such amenable to prosecution. Now Caesar’s proconsulship of Gaul was to terminate on March 1, 49, and the consular elections would take place at the earliest in the following summer. There would therefore be an interval between the two offices, and Caesar would be exposed to the utmost peril, if he gave up province and army on March 1, 49. Caesar had long foreseen this. When the law was passed in 55, which added a fresh term of five years to his government, Pompeius seems to have inserted in it (doubtless in accordance with a previous promise to Caesar) a clause prohibiting the discussion of a successor before March 1, 50. Caesar therefore could not be superseded except by the consuls of 49, and these would not be able to succeed him (as proconsuls) till Jan. 1, 48. He would thus be able to retain his army and government throughout the year 49.
Caesar’s canvass for the Consulship. As the law stood, he would have to come in person to Rome. But early in 52 a decree was promulgated, with the support of Pompeius, which relieved him from the necessity of canvassing in person. Caesar might now feel himself safe: he would retain both army and provinces throughout 49, and would not be forced to return to Rome until he was safe from prosecution as Consul.
Lex Pompeia de iure magistratuum. But this did not suit Caesar’s enemies. Pompeius and the Senate combined to alter the whole legal machinery for appointing provincial governors. There was to be an interval of five years between a consulship and a proconsulship, which would prevent Caesar, even if he were duly elected Consul in 49, from obtaining a fresh provincial governorship until five years from the end of 48. When the bill became law (as it did in 51) there would be an interval of some years before any consuls would be qualified under it for provinces: and to fill up the governorships during the interval, the Senate was authorised to appoint any person of consular rank who had not as yet proceeded to a proconsulship. Thus Caesar’s resignation both of his army and his province could be demanded on March 1, 49.
50 B.C. Caesar’s overtures for peace. Caesar let it be known to the Senate through Curio that he was willing to resign his army and provinces if Pompeius would simultaneously do the same: and the Senate voted a resolution in this sense by a majority of 370 to 22. The presiding Consul, Gaius Marcellus, broke up the meeting in anger, and with the two Consuls elected for 49 (Claudius Marcellus and Lentulus Crus) requested Pompeius to put himself at the head of the two legions stationed at Capua and to call the Italian militia to arms.
Caesar had completely attained the object of devolving the initiative of Civil War on his opponents. He had, while himself keeping on legal ground, compelled Pompeius to declare war, and to declare it not as the representative of the legitimate authority, but as general of a revolutionary minority of the Senate, which overawed the majority.—Adapted from Long, Mommsen, and Warde Fowler.
CIVIL WAR, 49-45 B.C. (1)
Caesar crosses the Rubicon, 49 B.C.
Fonte cadit modico parvisque impellitur undis
Puniceus Rubicon cum fervida canduit aestas,
215Perque imas serpit valles et Gallica certus
Limes ab Ausoniis disterminat arva colonis.
Tunc vires praebebat hiemps atque auxerat undas
Tertia iam gravido pluvialis Cynthia cornu
Et madidis Euri resolutae flatibus Alpes.
220Primus in obliquum sonipes opponitur amnem
Excepturus aquas; molli tum cetera rumpit
Turba vado faciles iam fracti fluminis undas.
Caesar, ut adversam superato gurgite ripam
Attigit Hesperiae vetitis et constitit arvis,
225‘Hic’ ait ‘hic pacem temerataque iura relinquo;
Te, Fortuna, sequor; procul hinc iam foedora sunto,
Credidimus fatis, utendum est iudice bello.’
Sic fatus noctis tenebris rapit agmina ductor
Impiger; it torto Balearis verbere fundae
230Ocior et missa Parthi post terga sagitta
Vicinumque minax invadit Ariminum, et ignes
Solis lucifero fugiebant astra relicto.
Iamque dies primos belli visura tumultus
Exoritur; seu sponte deum, seu turbidus Auster
235Impulerat, maestam tenuerunt nubila lucem.
Context. On Lentulus Crus and Claudius Marcellus, the Consuls for 49 B.C., must rest the immediate blame of the Civil War. On Jan. 1st Caesar’s tribune Curio once more presented proposals from Caesar, which startle us by their marvellous moderation (cf. Suet. Caesar, 29, 30), but Lentulus would not allow them to be considered. On Jan. 7th the Senatus consultum ultimum was decreed, and a state of war declared. Caesar crossed the Rubicon, the narrow brook which separated his province from Italy, to pass which at the head of an army was high treason to the State.—W. F.
214 puniceus = dark red: Rubicon, as if from ruber.
216 limes, i.e. until the time of Augustus, by whom Italy was extended to the R. Varus, the boundary between Gallia Narbonensis and Italy.
218 I.e. prob. the third night after the change of moon; gravido = surcharged with rain.—Haskins.
219 Alpes = mountains, not the Alps.
225 temerata, i.e. by Pompeius and the senatorial party.
229 verbere = the thong, i.e. of the sling (fundae).
231 Ariminum (Rimini), at this period the frontier town of Italy.
The Passage of the Rubicon. ‘When after nine years’ absence he trod once more the soil of his native land, he trod at the same time the path of revolution. Alea iacta est.’—M.
CIVIL WAR, 49-45 B.C. (2)
Caesar defends himself before the Senate, April 49 B.C.
His rebus confectis Caesar, ut reliquum tempus a labore intermitteretur, milites in proxima municipia deducit; ipse ad urbem proficiscitur. Coacto senatu iniurias inimicorum commemorat. Docet se nullum extraordinarium honorem appetisse, sed exspectato 5 legitimo tempore consulatus eo fuisse contentum, quod omnibus civibus pateret. Latum ab x tribunis plebis contradicentibus inimicis, Catone vero acerrime repugnante et pristina consuetudine dicendi mora dies extrahente, ut sui ratio absentis haberetur, ipso 10 consule Pompeio; qui si improbasset, cur ferri passus esset? qui si improbassetA, cur se uti populi beneficio prohibuisset? Patientiam proponit suam, cum de exercitibus dimittendis ultro postulavisset; in quo iacturam dignitatis atque honoris ipse facturus 15 esset. Acerbitatem inimicorum docet, qui, quod ab altero postularent, in se recusarent atque omnia permisceri mallent, quam imperium exercitusque dimittere. Iniuriam in eripiendis legionibus praedicat, crudelitatem et insolentiam in circumscribendis 20 tribunis plebis; condiciones a se latas, expetita colloquia et denegata commemorat. Pro quibus rebus hortatur ac postulat, ut rem publicam suscipiant atque una secum administrent.
Context. After his passage of the Rubicon, Caesar quickly made himself master of Italy. Town after town opened its gates to him. Corfinium (held in force by Domitius for Pompeius) surrendered, and the captured troops enlisted in his ranks. An attempt to blockade Pompeius in Brundisium was skilfully foiled. On the last day of March Caesar arrived at Rome. The Senate was legally summoned by the tribunes Antonius and Cassius, and was invited to unite with him in carrying on the government.
2 municipia, i.e. Brundisium, Tarentum, Hydruntum (Otranto).
10 ut sui . . . haberetur, i.e. allowing him to stand for the consulship in his absence.
15 iacturam dignitatis = sacrifice of prestige.—Long.
19 eripiendis legionibus, i.e. in 50 B.C. Caesar was required to send home a legion he had borrowed of Pompeius, and contribute another himself, ostensibly for the Parthian War; but the legions were detained by Pompeius in Italy, and the Parthian War was quietly dropped.
Caesar in Rome. All Caesar’s acts after the crossing of the Rubicon were entirely unconstitutional. But when he told the senators that he was prepared to take the government on himself, he was justified to himself by the past, and to posterity by the result.—W. F.
CIVIL WAR, 49-45 B.C. (3)
The Campaign round Lerida: the Soldiers fraternise, 49 B.C.
Dixit et ad montes tendentem praevenit hostem.
Illic exiguo paulum distantia vallo
Castra locant. Postquam spatio languentia nullo
170Mutua conspicuos habuerunt lumina voltus,
Et fratres natosque sues videre, patresque;
Deprensum est civile nefas. Tenuere parumper
Ora metu, tantum nutu motoque salutant
Ense suos; mox ut stimulis maioribus ardens
175Rupit amor leges, audet transcendere vallum
Miles, in amplexus effusas tendere palmas.
Hospitis ille ciet nomen, vocat ille propinquum,
Admonet hunc studiis consors puerilibus aetas;
179Nec Romanus erat, qui non agnoverat hostem.
196Pax erat, et miles castris permixtus utrisque
Errabat; duro concordes caespite mensas
Instituunt et permixto libamina Baccho;
Graminei luxere foci, iunctoque cubili
200Extrahit insomnes bellorum fabula noctes,
Quo primum steterint campo, qua lancea dextrum
Exierit. Dum quae gesserunt fortia iactant,
Et dum multa negant, quod solum fata petebant,
Est miseris renovata fides, atque omne futurum
205Crevit amore nefas.
Context. On leaving Rome Caesar set out for Spain to encounter the veteran army of Pompeius under his legati Afranius and Petreius. If this were crushed, he felt he would be free to take the offensive against Pompeius in the East. Round Lerida (Ilerda) on the R. Segres (a tributary of the Ebro) he fought the most brilliant campaign of all his military life. After severe losses and hardships, Caesar outmanœuvred the Pompeians, cut them off from their base on the Ebro, and forced a surrender on most generous terms.
167 Dixit, sc. Caesar.
ad montes, i.e. the rocky hills through which the retreating Pompeians had to pass before they could reach the Ebro valley. Caesar, by a wonderful march, outstrips (praevenit) them and blocks the way.
169 spatio (sc. interposito) languentia nullo = not failing (languentia) owing to the distance, i.e. they were so near they could not fail to recognise one another.—Haskins.
173 metu, i.e. of their leaders.
175 Rupit leges = burst the bonds of discipline.—H.
178 Admonet . . . aetas = one is reminded of his friend by the time passed together in boyhood’s pursuits.—H.
200 Extrahit = whiles away.
Result of the Campaign. The whole of the western half of the Empire was now in Caesar’s power, with the single exception of Massilia.
CIVIL WAR, 49-45 B.C. (4)
Siege of Massilia.
A Treacherous Sortie, 49 B.C.
Iam satis hoc Graiae memorandum contigit urbi
Aeternumque decus, quod non impulsa nec ipso
390Strata metu tenuit flagrantis in omnia belli
Praecipitem cursum, raptisque a Caesare cunctis
Vincitur una mora. Quantum est quod fata tenentur,
Quodque virum toti properans imponere mundo
Hos perdit fortuna, dies!
Context. Caesar’s appeal to the leading citizens to espouse his cause was at first successful, but the arrival of Domitius (whom he had treated so generously at Corfinium) with a fleet caused the Massiliots to change their mind. Unable to remain himself, Caesar entrusted the siege to Trebonius, supported by Dec. Brutus with the fleet. He has, however, left us a detailed account of their skill and energy, and of the heroic defence of the citizens, marred by a treacherous sortie under a truce. He returned to receive its final submission, and left the city unharmed, as a tribute ‘rather to its ancient renown than to any claim it had on himself.’
389 non impulsa = not urged by others, i.e. by Pompeius and his adherents. But cf. Caesar, de B. C. i. 34.
391 raptis = speedily won.—H.
B. At hostes sine fide tempus atque occasionem fraudis ac doli quaerunt; interiectisque aliquot diebus, nostris languentibus atque animo remissis, 10 subito meridiano tempore, cum alius discessisset, alius ex diutino labore in ipsis operibus quieti se dedisset, arma vero omnia reposita contectaque essent, portis se foras erumpunt, secundo magnoque vento ignem operibus inferunt. Hunc sic distulit 15 ventus, uti uno tempore agger, plutei, testudo, turris, tormenta flammam conciperent, et prius haec omnia consumerentur, quam quem ad modum accidisset animadverti posset. Nostri repentina fortuna permoti arma, quae possunt, arripiunt; alii ex castris 20 sese incitant. Fit in hostes impetus eorum, sed muro sagittis tormentisque fugientes persequi prohibentur. Illi sub murum se recipiunt, ibique musculum turrimque latericiam libere incendunt. Ita multorum mensium labor hostium perfidia et vi 25 tempestatis puncto temporis interiit.
13 contecta: i.e. the shield kept in a leather casing.
16 plutei = screens or mantlets of hurdles covered with raw hides.
17 tormenta (torqu + mentum) = artillery, engines for throwing missiles by twisted ropes; e.g. the ballista, catapulta.
24 musculum = sapping-shed.
turrim latericiam = brick tower.
25 multorum mensium, i.e. from May to August 49 B.C.
CIVIL WAR, 49-45 B.C. (5)
‘Nothing in his life
Became him like the leaving it.’
Quid nunc rostra tibi prosunt turbata forumque
800Unde tribunicia plebeius signifer arce
Arma dabas populis? Quid prodita iura senatus
Et gener atque socer bello concurrere iussi?
Ante iaces quam dira duces Pharsalia confert,
804Spectandumque tibi bellum civile negatum est.
Libycas en nobile corpus
810Pascit aves nullo contectus Curio busto.
At tibi nos, quando non proderit ista silere
A quibus omne aevi senium sua fama repellit,
Digna damus, iuvenis, meritae praeconia vitae.
Haud alium tanta civem tulit indole Roma,
815Aut cui plus leges deberent recta sequenti.
Perdita nunc urbi nocuerunt saecula, postquam
Ambitus et luxus et opum metuenda facultas
Transverso mentem dubiam torrente tulerunt;
Momentumque fuit mutatus Curio rerum
820Gallorum captus spoliis et Caesaris auro.
Ius licet in iugulos nostros sibi fecerit ense
Sulla potens Mariusque ferox et Cinna cruentus
Caesareaeque domus series; cui tanta potestas
Concessa est? Emere omnes, hic vendidit urbem.
Context. In 49 B.C. Curio was sent by Caesar to wrest the corn-province of Africa from the Pompeians. He won a signal success over Varus (allied with Juba) at Utica, but allowed himself to be surprised on the plain of the Bagradas, and, when all was lost, died sword in hand.
800 tribunicia arce = from the citadel of the tribune, i.e. the inviolability of the office and the right of veto. As tribune Curio played an all-important part in the crisis of 50 B.C.
801 prodita iura senatus, i.e. of the right of the senators to appoint governors of the provinces.—Haskins.
802 gener atque socer: by the early death of Julia (54 B.C.)—a beloved wife and daughter—the personal relation between Pompeius and Caesar was broken up.
812 senium (senex) = decay (of lapse of time).
813 digna . . . vitae = such a panegyric (praeconia) as thy life deserves.—H.
815-818 As tribune Curio for a time played the part of an independent republican, till his talent induced Caesar to buy him up.
819 momentum (= movi + mentum) rerum = that which turned the scale of history.—H.
824 vendidit: perh. referred to by Verg. Aen. vi. 621-2:
Vendidit hic auro patriam dominumque potentem
Imposuit; fixit leges pretio atque refixit.
CIVIL WAR, 49-45 B.C. (6)
Dyrrachium.
Caesar’s line of circumvallation, 48 B.C.
Erat nova et inusitata belli ratio cum tot castellorum numero tantoque spatio et tantis munitionibus et toto obsidionis genere, tum etiam reliquis rebus. Nam quicumque alterum obsidere conati sunt, perculsos atque infirmos hostes adorti aut proelio superatos 5 aut aliqua offensione permotos continuerunt, cum ipsi numero equitum militumque praestarent; causa autem obsidionis haec fere esse consuevit, ut frumento hostes prohiberent. At tum integras atque incolumes copias Caesar inferiore militum 10 numero continebat, cum illi omnium rerum copia abundarent; cotidie enim magnus undique navium numerus conveniebat, quae commeatum supportarent, neque ullus flare ventus poterat, quin aliqua ex parte secundum cursum haberent. Ipse autem consumptis 15 omnibus longe lateque frumentis summis erat in angustiis. Sed tamen haec singulari patientia milites ferebant. Recordabantur enim eadem se superiore anno in Hispania perpessos labore et patientia maximum bellum confecisse, meminerant ad 20 Alesiam magnam se inopiam perpessos, multo etiam maiorem ad Avaricum maximarum se gentium victores discessisse.
Context. In Jan. (48 B.C.) Caesar set sail from Brundisium and landed safely in Epirus. After a junction with Antonius, who followed him from Brundisium with reinforcements, Caesar established himself close to Dyrrachium (Durazzo), the key of the whole military situation. Pompeius refused to fight, and encamped on a hill close to the sea at Petra, a short distance S. of Dyrrachium, where his fleets could bring him supplies. Caesar now determined to hem him in by a line of circumvallation.
2 tanto spatio: eventually the whole circuit of circumvallation covered at the least 16 miles: to this was afterwards added, just as before Alesia, an outer line of defence.
6 aut aliqua offensione permotos = or demoralised by some other mishap (offensione, lit. stumbling, and so failure).
12-15 Pompeius still had undisputed command of the sea.
Caesar’s lines broken. Pompeius was informed by Celtic deserters that Caesar had not yet secured by a cross wall the beach between his two chains of entrenchment on his left (200 yards apart), leaving it possible to land troops from the sea into the unprotected space. Troops were landed by night: Caesar’s outer line of defence was carried, and his lines broken through. ‘Like Wellington at Burgos in 1812, Caesar failed from want of a sufficient force. In each case the only safe course was a retreat: in each case the retreat was conducted with admirable skill.’—W. F.
Dyrrachium. [To face p. 216.
CIVIL WAR, 49-45 B.C. (7)
The Eve of Pharsalus.
Dream of Pompeius.
At nox, felicis Magno pars ultima vitae,
Sollicitos vana decepit imagine somnos.
Nam Pompeiani visus sibi sede theatri
10Innumeram effigiem Romanae cernere plebis,
Attollique suum laetis ad sidera nomen
Vocibus, et plausu cuneos certare sonantes.
Qualis erat populi facies clamorque faventis,
Olim cum iuvenis primique aetata triumphi
15Post domitas gentes quas torrens ambit Hiberus,
Et quaecumque fugax Sertorius impulit arma,
Vespere pacato, pura venerabilis aeque
Quam currus ornante toga, plaudente senatu,
Sedit adhuc Romanus eques: seu fine bonorum
20Anxia venturis ad tempora laeta refugit,
Sive per ambages solitas contraria visis
Vaticinata quies magni tulit omina planctus,
Seu vetito patrias ultra tibi cernere sedes
Sic Romam fortuna dedit. Ne rumpite somnos.
25Castrorum vigiles, nullas tuba verberet aures.
Crastina dira quies et imagine maesta diurna
Undique funestas acies feret undique bellum.
Unde pares somnos populi noctemque beatam?
O felix, si te vel sic tua Roma videret.
9 Pompeiani theatri. Pompeius built the first stone theatre at Rome, near the Campus Martius, capable of holding 40,000 people.
10 Innumeram . . . plebis = the image of the countless Roman people. innumeram which belongs to plebis is transferred to effigiem.—Haskins.
14 Olim . . . triumphi, i.e. over Africa 79 B.C. when only 24, and adhuc Romanus eques (l. 19). It was not until 71 B.C. that he triumphed over Spain, after the murder of Sertorius. Lucan confuses the two triumphs.
16 impulit = set in motion (lit. drive forward).
17-18 pura venerabilis . . . toga = no less worshipful in pure white gown than (he would have been) in that which usually adorns the car of triumph, i.e. the toga picta.—H.
20 anxia (sc. quies) = his repose full of anxiety for the future.—H.
21-22 solitas . . . vaticinata = foretelling the opposite of his visions i.e. by the plausus of which he dreamed, the planctus which was in store for him was foreshadowed.—H.
25 nullas = at all. Cf. Cic. Ep.: nullus venit = he never came.
26 Crastina . . . diurna = to-morrow’s night of horror haunted by the sad image of the day’s events.—H.
29 sic, i.e. in dreams.
The Dream of Pompeius. Macaulay says ‘I hardly know an instance of so great an effect produced by means so simple.’
CIVIL WAR, 49-45 B.C. (8)
Pompeius ill-advised at Pharsalus, 48 B.C.
Inter duas acies tantum erat relictum spatii, ut satis esset ad concursum utriusque exercitus. Sed Pompeius suis praedixerat, ut Caesaris impetum exciperent neve se loco moverent aciemque eius distrahi paterentur; idque admonitu C. Triarii 5 fecisse dicebatur, ut primus excursus visque militum infringeretur aciesque distenderetur atque in suis ordinibus dispositi dispersos adorirentur; leviusque casura pila sperabat in loco retentis militibus, quam si ipsi immissis telis occucurrissent, simul fore, ut 10 duplicato cursu Caesaris milites exanimarentur et lassitudine conficerentur. Quod nobis quidem nulla ratione factum a Pompeio videtur, propterea quod est quaedam animi incitatio atque alacritas naturaliter innata omnibus, quae studio pugnae incenditur. 15 Hanc non reprimere, sed augere imperatores debent; neque frustra antiquitus institutum est, ut signa undique concinerent clamoremque universi tollerent: quibus rebus et hostes terreri et suos incitari existimaverunt. 20
Context. Caesar made for Apollonia, where he left his wounded, and then marched S.E. into Thessaly, where he joined Domitius Calvinus. (He had been sent with two legions E. into Macedonia, to stop reinforcements for Pompeius under Scipio, Pompeius’ father-in-law.) Pompeius followed Caesar, and encamped on the slope of a hill facing Caesar’s position near Pharsalus. Here he offered battle, his better judgment overruled by the clamorous Senators in his camp.
4-5 aciem . . . paterentur = so as to allow their (advancing) line to become disorganised (distrahi), by the force of its onset.
7 in suis . . . dispositi = by maintaining their proper distances.
Scene of the Fight. The battle was fought near the town of Pharsalus, while the territory of the town was named Pharsalia. Cf. Catull. lxiv. 37:
Pharsalum coeunt, Pharsalia late frequentant.
The Battle. Pompeius had 47,000 infantry and 7000 cavalry against Caesar’s 22,000 infantry and 1000 cavalry. Pompeius stationed his cavalry and archers on his left, and confidently expected to outflank his enemy’s right. But Caesar, foreseeing the defeat of his cavalry, had stationed behind it in reserve 2000 of his best legionaries. When Caesar’s cavalry fell back outnumbered, this reserve ran forward at the charge, not discharging their pila, but using them as spears, and driving them against man and horse. Taken aback by so unusual an infantry attack, the Pompeian cavalry wavered and fled. Caesar’s third line (forming a rear-guard) was now sent forward to support the two front lines, and this decided the battle.—Result. Submission of the East to Caesar.
Pharsalus. [To face p. 218.