6. Fourth exception. The seven following, ending in ail, change this into aux, as:
|
bail, baux, lease, leases. corail, coraux, coral, corals. émail, émaux, enamel, enamels. |
soupirail, soupiraux, air-hole, air-holes. travail, travaux, work, works. sous-bail, sous-baux, under-lease, under-leases. |
N. B.--Peculiar are bétail, cattle, which makes bestiaux, and ail, garlic, which makes aulx.
7. Fifth exception. Those ending in al change this into aux, as:
|
animal, animaux, animal, animals. mal, maux, evil, evils. |
cheval, chevaux, horse, horses. général, généraux, general, generals. |
N. B.--Bal, ball; carnaval, carnival; régal, a treat, take s.
8. Ciel, oeil, aïeul, have two plurals, as:
|
aïeul, aïeux, ancestor, ancestors. ciel, cieux, heaven, heavens. ciel { tester of a bed; {sky of a picture; oeil, yeux, eye, eyes. |
aïeul, aïeuls, grandfather, grandfathers. ciels { testers of beds. {skies of pictures. oeils-de-boeuf, oval window, oval windows. |
§ 6. Plural of Compound Nouns.
1. When two nouns form a compound, both take the plural ending, as:
|
chef-lieu, chefs-lieux, chief town, chief towns. |
chou-fleur, choux-fleurs, cauliflower. |
2. When two nouns are connected by a preposition, the first only takes the plural ending, as:
|
arc-en-ciel, arcs-en-ciel, rainbow, rainbows. |
chef-d'oeuvre, chefs-d'oeuvre, masterpiece, masterpieces. |
N. B.--Peculiar are tête-à-tête, private interview, and pied-à-terre, temporary stopping-place, which are invariable.
3. A noun and adjective forming a compound take both the plural ending, as:
basse-cour, basses-cours, poultry-yard, poultry-yards.
porte-cochère, portes-cochères, carriage entrance, carriage entrances.
N. B.--Peculiar are:
grand'mère, grand'mères, grandmother, grandmothers.
grand'messe, grand'messes, high mass, high masses.
monsieur, messieurs, mister, sir, gentlemen.
madame, mesdames, madam, ladies.
mademoiselle, mesdemoiselles, miss, young ladies.
4. When a compound is formed of a noun joined to either a verb, a preposition, or an adverb, then the noun alone takes the sign of the plural--provided, however, it conveys the idea of plurality, as:
passe-port, passe-ports, passport, passports.
avant-garde, avant-gardes, vanguard, vanguards.
contre-maître, contre-maîtres, foreman, foremen.
5. Of the following compounds the nouns take s in both numbers, because they suggest plurality, as:
|
un, a, or des, some |
{ essuie-mains, towel, towels = that which dries the hands. { cure-dents, toothpick, toothpicks = that which picks the teeth. { porte-clefs, turnkey, turnkeys = one who carries keys. |
6. Compounds made of invariables, of course, do not change, as:
|
passe-partout, master key, master keys. |
pour-boire, a tip, tips. |
§ 7. Nouns having no Plural.
1. Such are the metals, as:
|
or, gold. argent, silver. |
fer, iron. plomb, lead. |
cuivre, copper. étain, pewter. |
2. Abstract terms, as:
|
jeunesse, youth. beauté, beauty. bienveillance, kindness. |
immortalité, immortality. bonté, goodness. courage, courage. |
3. Adjectives used substantively, as:
|
le beau, the beautiful. |
l'utile, the useful. |
§ 8. Nouns having no Singular.
|
annales, annals. denrées }provision. vivres } étrennes, New-year's present. fiancailles, betrothing. |
frais, expenses. gages, wages. gens, people. lunettes, spectacles. vitraux, window-glass, etc. |
§ 9. Proper Names.
1. These are used invariable, as:
|
Deux Napoléon ont régné en France. Two Napoleons have reigned in France. |
Les deux Corneille sont nés à Rouen. The two Corneilles were born at Rouen. |
2. When, however, we speak of famous men as a class, then the plural form is used, as:
|
La France a eu ses Bourbons et ses Bonapartes. France has had her Bourbons and her Bonapartes. |
Les Stuarts ont succédé aux Tudors. The Stuarts succeeded the Tudors. |
§ 10. The Article.
1. The French for the is le (masculine) and la (feminine), singular; for the plural of both genders it is les, as:
|
le père, the father. |
la mère, the mother. |
les frères, the brothers. |
2. Before words beginning with a vowel or silent h the e of le and a of la are dropped, as:
|
l'enfant, the child. |
l'ami, the friend. |
l'habit, the dress. |
§ 11. Schemes of Declensions.
1. Before a consonant:
Singular.
|
Masculine. Nom. le père, the father. Gen. du père, of the father (father's). Dat. au père, to the father. Acc. le père, the father. Abl. du père, from the father. |
Feminine. la mère, the mother. de la mère, of the mother (mother's). à la mère, to the mother. la mère, the mother. de la mère, from the mother. |
Plural.
|
Nom. les pères, mères, the fathers, mothers. Gen. des pères, mères, of the fathers, mothers. Dat. aux pères, mères, to the fathers, mothers. Acc. les pères, mères, the fathers, mothers. Abl. des pères, mères, from the fathers, mothers. |
2. Before a vowel or silent h of both genders:
Nom. l'oncle, l'épouse, l'hôte, the uncle, wife, guest.
Gen. de l'oncle, de l'épouse, de l'hôte, of the uncle, wife, guest.
Dat. à l'oncle, à l'épouse, à l'hôte, to uncle, wife, guest.
Acc. l'oncle, l'épouse, l'hôte, the uncle, wife, guest.
Abl. de l'oncle, de l'épouse, de l'hôte, from the uncle, wife, guest.
The plural same as above.
3. The English indefinite article a or an is rendered by un, masculine, and une, feminine. Declined in the two genders it stands thus:
|
Masculine. Nom. un homme, a man. Gen. d'un homme, of a man (a man's). Dat. à un homme, to a man. Acc. un homme, a man. Abl. d'un homme, from a man. |
Feminine. une femme, a woman. d'une femme, of a woman (a woman's). à une femme, to a woman. une femme, a woman. d'une femme, from a woman. |
§ 12. The Partitive Article.
This article is used when in English we wish to express a part of anything, indicating it by some or any. The following presentation will show that the article expressing this is analogous with the genitive in both numbers:
|
Masculine. du pain, some, any bread. de l'argent, some, any money. des oeufs, some, any eggs. |
Feminine. de la viande, some, any meat. de l'encre, some, any ink. des cerises, some, any cherries. |
Observation.--Some, in the sense of a certain one, must be rendered in accordance with this meaning, as: une certaine femme, some woman = a certain woman. In the plural we may say: des femmes, some women.
§ 13. Gender and Number of Adjectives.
The adjective varies its termination to accord with the gender and number of the noun it qualifies, as:
|
Un bon garçon. |
Une bonne fille. |
§ 14. Formation of the Feminine of Adjectives.
1. Adjectives ending with a silent e remain unchanged in the feminine, as:
2. Adjectives which do not end with a silent e append one, as:
3. Exceptions.
Mauvais, bad; niais, silly; ras, close shorn, follow the general rule and take e; therefore mauvaise, niaise, rase.
4. Note the peculiar changes of the following:
5. Participial adjectives in ant, when changing this termination into eur, turn in this stage their final r into se, as:
|
Pres. Part. dansant, trompant, mentant, vendant, chantant, |
Masculine. danseur, trompeur, menteur, vendeur, chanteur, |
Feminine. danseuse, dancer. trompeuse, deceiver. menteuse, liar. vendeuse, saleswoman. chanteuse and cantatrice, professional singer. |
6. Peculiar in eur, used both adjectively and substantively, are:
|
Masculine. ambassadeur, ambassador. bailleur, lessor. chasseur, hunter, demandeur, plaintiff. défendeur, defendant. devineur, guesser. enchanteur, enchanter. gouverneur, governor. pécheur, sinner. serviteur, man-servant. |
Feminine. ambassadrice, ambassadress. bailleresse, lessor. chasseresse, huntress. demanderesse, plaintiff. défenderesse, defendant. devineresse, guesser. enchanteresse, enchantress. gouvernante, governess. pécheresse, sinner. servante, maid-servant. |
7. Those in teur, identical with the Latin ending tor, make trice, as:
|
Masculine. acteur, actor. admirateur, admirer. débiteur, debtor. exécuteur, executor. inspecteur, inspector. inventeur, inventor. persécuteur, persecutor. |
Feminine. actrice, actress. admiratrice, admirer. débitrice, debtor. exécutrice, executrix. inspectrice, inspectress. inventrice, inventor. persécutrice, persecutor. |
8. The following adhere to the general rule of taking e:
|
Masculine. extérieur, supérieur, majeur, mineur, meilleur, |
Feminine. extérieure, exterior. supérieure, superior. majeure, of age, major. mineure, minor. meilleure, better. |
9. Nouns used also adjectively, indicating occupations chiefly exercised by men, are alike in the masculine and the feminine, as:
|
auteur, author. littérateur, literary person. connaisseur, connoisseur. graveur, engraver. |
peintre, painter. guide, guide. docteur, doctor. professeur, professor. |
10. The following have two forms for their masculine:
11. Without any feminine are:
|
artisan, artisan. châtain, chestnut color dispos, active. |
partisan, partisan. témoin, witness. vélin, vellum, of vellum. |
§ 15. Formation of the Plural of the Adjective.
1. The adjective, in its forms of masculine and feminine, comes under the general s rule of the noun, as:
2. Except those ending in their masculine form in s or x, which remain unchanged, as:
|
Singular. heureux, doux, |
Plural. heureux, happy. doux, sweet, soft. |
3. Those whose termination is eau append x in the plural, as:
|
Singular. beau, nouveau, |
Plural. beaux, beautiful. nouveaux, new. |
4. Those ending in al change this into aux, as:
|
Singular. libéral, rural, |
Plural. libéraux, liberal. ruraux, rural. |
5. N. B.--The following, though ending in al, come under the general rule:
|
Singular. amical, bancal, fatal, final, frugal, filial, glacial, |
Plural. amicals, friendly. bancals, bandy-legged. fatals, fatal. finals, final. frugals, frugal. filials, filial. glacials, frozen, icy. |
Singular. initial, labial, matinal, médial, naval, penal, théatral, |
Plural. initials, initial. labials, labial. matinals, early. médials, medial. navals, naval. penals, penal. théatrals, theatrical. |
§ 16. Comparison.
1. Examples will best show this feature of the language.
Aussi ... que ..., as ... as ..., as much ... as ...; si ... que ..., as ... as ...; autant ... que ..., tant ... que ..., as much ... as ..., so much ... as ...
Equality.
With Adj. Je suis aussi grand que vous. Il est si diligent qu'il réuissira. Cette qualité est aussi estimable que rare. Cette qualité est estimable autant que rare.
With Part. Nous sommes aussi bons, aussi aimées que vous. Rien ne m'a tant flatté que cette nouvelle.
With Adv. Il lit aussi peu que vous. Il lit si peu!
With Noun. J'aime mon frère autant que ma soeur.
Inferiority.
2. Moins ... que ... less ... than ...
Vous êtes moins pauvre que moi. Je ne suis pas si pauvre que vous.
Note carefully these sentences: Il est moins habile que je ne pensais, he is less skillful than I thought. Il n'est pas moins habile que je pensais, he is not less skillful than I thought.
Superiority.
3. Plus ... que ... more ... than ...; davantage, more so.
La paresse est plus dangereuse que la vanité, idleness is more dangerous than vanity. La vanité est dangereuse, la paresse davantage. Vanity is dangerous, idleness more so.
4. With Nouns only. Plus de ... que ..., more ... than; tant de ... autant de ... que ..., as much, as many ... as ...; tout autant de ... que ... quite as much, as many ... as ... pas autant de ... que ..., not as much or as many ... as ...; moins de ... que ..., less, fewer ... than ...
J'ai plus de livres que vous. Vous avez reçu autant de lettres que moi. Les Etats-Unis n'ont pas tant de soldats que la France. J'ai tout autant de celui-ci que de celui-là. I have as much of this as of that. Il n'a pas autant de chevaux que de chiens. New York a moins d'habitants que Paris.
Superlative.
5. Le plus ... the most ...; le moins ... the least ...
Jean est le plus appliqué de mes élèves, John is the most diligent of my pupils. Quelle est la moins difficile de vos leçons? Which one is the least difficult of your lessons?
§ 17. Irregular Comparatives and Superlatives.
1. Adjectives:
bon, meilleur, le meilleur, good, better, the best.
mauvais, pire, le pire, bad, worse, the worst.
petit, moindre, le moindre, little, less, the least.
Ce vin est bon, le vôtre est meilleur, mais le mien est le meilleur. Jean est mauvais, Jules est pire, mais Robert est le pire de l'école, or Jean est mauvais, Jules est plus mauvais, mais Robert est le plus mauvais de l'école. De deux maux il faut éviter le pire, of two evils avoid the worst. Ce n'est pas être petit que d'être moindre qu'un grand. Being less great is not being small. On ne sentait pas le moindre vent, not the least wind was felt.
2. Adverbs:
bien, mieux, le mieux, well, better, best.
mal, pis, le pis, bad, worse, worst.
peu, moins, le moins, little, less, least.
beaucoup, plus, le plus, much, more, most.
Albert écrit bien, Gustave écrit mieux, mais Jacques écrit le mieux. Thérèse lit mal, sa soeur lit encore pis (or plus mal), et leur frère lit le plus mal. Mon père a peu voyagé; moi j'ai encore moins voyagé, mais ma mère a le moins voyagé de toute notre famille.
§ 18. Demonstrative Adjectives.
Singular.
1. Masculine.--Ce, this or that, placed before a word beginning with a consonant. Cet, this or that, placed before a word beginning with a vowel or h mute. Feminine.--Cette, this or that.
Plural.
Ces, these or those, for both genders.
2. N. B.--In special designations ci and là are placed after the noun, as:
|
ce livre-ci, this book (here). ce livre-là, that book (there). ces livres-ci, these books (here). |
cette plume-ci, this pen (here). cette plume-là, that pen (there). ces livres-là, those books (there). |
§ 19. Possessive Adjectives.
1. These are always joined to a noun, and agree with the thing possessed.
| Singular. | Plural. |
|
Masculine. mon, ton, son, notre, votre, leur, |
Feminine. ma, ta, sa, notre, votre, leur, |
For both Genders. mes, my. tes, thy. ses, his, her, its. nos, our. vos, your. leurs, their. |
2. Before feminine nouns beginning with a vowel, or such as begin with h mute, mon, ton, son are used instead of ma, ta, sa, as:
Feminine Nouns.
mon (not ma) armoire, my wardrobe.
ton (not ta) ardoise, thy slate.
son (not sa) école, his or her school.
3. The possessive adjectives must be repeated before every noun. Mon père, ma mère, et ma soeur sont arrivés, my father, mother, and sister have arrived.
§ 20. Numeral Adjectives.
3. In dating the year the abbreviated form mil is used, as:
L'an mil huit cent quatre-vingt-douze, the year eighteen hundred and ninety-two.
4. In speaking of the days of the month, with the exception of the first--le premier--the cardinals, not the ordinals, are used, as:
Le dix-neuf juillet, the 19th of July; le vingt-six novembre, the 26th of November.
5. The cardinals are also used in speaking of rulers and princes:
Charles dix, Charles X; Henri huit, Henry VIII; Louis quatorze, Louis XIV; Georges trois, George III.
6. We must say, however, Henri premier, Henry the first.
7. Deux and second may be used either way--Charles deux or Charles second.
§ 21. Numeral Nouns.
|
unité, unit. couple, paire, couple, pair. trio, three, trio. demi-douzaine, half-dozen. huitaine, eight days. neuvaine, nine days of prayer. dizaine, ten. douzaine, dozen. quinzaine, fortnight. vingtaine, score, twenty. |
trentaine, thirty. quarantaine, two score. cinquantaine, fifty. soixantaine, sixty. quatre-vingtaine, eighty. une centaine, one hundred. deux centaines, two hundred. un millier, one thousand. deux milliers, two thousand. un million, one million. |
§ 22. Fractional Numerals.
|
1. Un quart, one quarter. le tiers, the third. |
la moitié, the half. un cinquième, one fifth. |
2. Demi before and after its noun:
|
une demi-heure, half an hour. |
une heure et demie, an hour and a half. |
§ 23. Ordinal Adverbs.
|
Premièrement, first, in the first place. |
deuxièmement, secondement, secondly. |
§ 24. Indefinite Adjectives.
|
Masculine. 1. aucun, chaque, même, nul, plusieurs, |
Feminine. aucune, not any. chaque, every, each. même, same, self, even. nulle, no. plusieurs, several. |
Masculine. quel, quelconque, quelque, tel, tout, |
Feminine. quelle, what. quelconque, whatever, some, any. quelque, some. telle, such. toute, all, every. |
2. Aucun requires ne before the verb:
|
aucun ami, no friend. aucun ami n'est venu me voir, aucune amie n'est venue me voir, |
aucune amie, no (lady) friend. no friend has come to see me. no (lady) friend has come to see me. |
|
3. Chaque ville, chaque village était représenté. |
Every town, every village was represented. |
4. Même as an adjective means same, very, self; as an adverb, even.
5. Nul, like aucun, requires ne before the verb; it is stronger than aucun.
|
Nul de mes fils se fera acteur, Nulle de mes filles se fera actrice, Pas un homme, pas une femme (Nul homme, nulle femme) n'est venu me voir, |
No son of mine shall become an actor. No daughter of mine shall be an actress. Not a man, not a woman has come to see me. |
6. Plusieurs is invariable:
|
Plusieurs fois, several times. Plusieurs raisons, several reasons. |
Plusieurs livres, several books. Plusieurs rues, several streets. |
7. Quel, quelle; quels, quelles.
|
Quel malheur! Quelle personne, quelle chose vous déplaît? Quels beaux yeux! Quelles charmantes manières! |
What a misfortune! What person, what thing displeases you? What beautiful eyes! What charming manners! |
8. Quelconque stands after the noun:
|
Je prétexterai une affaire quelconque, |
I shall feign some kind of business. |
9. Quelque, in the sense of some, is variable:
|
Il a quelque mérite, Je lui ai donné quelques pièces d'argent, |
He has some merit. I have given him some pieces of money. |
10. Quelque, in the sense of about, is invariable:
|
J'ai perdu quelque trois cents dollars, |
I have lost about three hundred dollars. |
|
11. Tel homme, such man. Telle femme, such woman. |
Tels travaux, such works. Telles fleurs, such flowers. |
12. Tout, meaning every, varies only for the feminine:
|
Tout homme doit faire son devoir, Toute ville a ses magistrats, |
Every man ought to do his duty. Every city has its officers. |
13. Tout, meaning all, varies in gender and number:
|
Tout le monde, all mankind--everybody. Toute la terre, all the earth. |
Tous mes enfants, all my children. Toutes ses lettres, all his letters. |
§ 25. The Pronoun.
There are five kinds of pronouns:
|
The personal, The possessive, The demonstrative, |
The relative, The indefinite. |
§ 26. The Personal Pronoun.