1. Nominative Form.                    Reflective Form.
             Singular.                 Plural.            Singular.          Plural.
1st pers.   je, I,                  nous, we.         me, myself,      nous, ourselves.
2d   "      tu, thou,               vous, you, ye.    te,  thyself,    vous, yourselves.
3d   "     {il, he, it, m.,         ils, m., they.    se  { himself           {elle, she, it, f.,      elles, f., they.  soi { herself,   se, themselves                                                          { itself

2. Accusative:

When placed before the verb.

              Singular.           Plural.
1st pers.   me, me.             nous, us.
2d    "     te, thee.           vous, you.
           {le, m., him, it.              { both
3d    "    {                    les, them {
           {la, f., her, it.              { gend.

When placed after the verb.

              Singular.           Plural.
1st pers.    moi, me.            nous, us.
2d   "       toi, thee.          vous, you.
            {le, m., him, it.             { both
3d   "      {                   les, them {
            {la, f., her, it.             { gend.

3. Dative:

When placed before the verb.

             Singular.             Plural.
1st pers.   me,   to me.          nous, to us.
2d   "      te,   to thee.        vous, to you.
                 {to him.         leur, to them (both gend.).
3d   "      lui, {to her.
                 {to it.

When placed after the verb.

   Singular.                    Plural.
à moi, to me.               à nous,       to us.
à toi, to thee.             à vous,       to you.
à lui, to him.              à eux, m.,  }
                                        } to them.
à elle, to her.             à elles, f.,}

4. Genitive and ablative:

              Always placed after the verb.
      Singular.                     Plural.
de moi, of or from me.      de nous, of or from us.
de toi, of or from thee.    de vous, of or from you.
de lui, of or from him.     d'eux, m., of or from them.
d'elle, of or from her.     d'elles, f., of or from them.

§ 27. Possessive Pronouns.

1. The possessive pronouns, like the possessive adjectives, agree with the thing possessed. Some relate to one person, some to several.

2. Possessives relating to one person:

                 Singular.                   Plural.
           Masculine.    Feminine.       Masculine.       Feminine.
1st pers.  le mien,   la mienne.    les miens,   les miennes, mine.
2d   "     le tien,   la tienne.    les tiens,   les tiennes, thine.
3d   "     le sien,   la sienne.    les siens,   les siennes, his, hers, its.

3. Relating to two or more persons:

                   Singular.                Plural.
            Masculine.    Feminine.      Masculine and Feminine.
1st pers.   le nôtre,   la nôtre.    les nôtres, ours.
2d    "     le vôtre,   la vôtre.    les vôtres, yours.
3d    "     le leur,    la leur.     les leurs, theirs.
            Votre jardin et le mien,    Your garden and mine.            Vos enfants et les miens,   Your children and mine.            Notre maison et la sienne,  Our house and his (or hers).
            Nos fleurs et les leurs,    Our flowers and theirs.

§ 28. Demonstrative Pronouns.

1.    Singular.                           Plural.Masculine.   Feminine.                Masculine.   Feminine.                    {this.                             {these.
celui,     celle,   {              ceux,     celles,   {
                    {that.                             {those.
celui-ci,  celle-ci, this (here).  ceux-ci,  celles-ci, these (here}.
celui-là,  celle-là, that (there}. ceux-là,  celles-là, those (there}.
                              ce, it, they.

2. Absolute Demonstrative Pronouns.

ceci, this, }
            } not used in the plural.
cela, that, }

3. The demonstrative pronouns celui, celle, etc., assume the gender and number of the nouns for which they stand:

Mon ami et celui de mon frère,
Ma femme et celle de mon voisin,
Voilà mon livre, celui-ci est à vous et celui-là, est à lui,
Voilà ma chambre, celle-ci est à mon frère et celle-là, est à ma soeur.
 My friend and my brother's.
My wife and my neighbor's.
Here is my book; this one is yours and that one is his.
Here is my room; this one is my brother's and that one is my sister's.

4. Ce, it, as the nominative of the verb être:

c'est moi, it is I.      c'est vous, it is you.

5. The absolutes ceci, cela serve only to point out objects:

Prenez ceci, take this.     Rendez-moi cela, give me that back.

§ 29. Relative Pronouns.

1. Qui, who, which (nominative).    de qui, of, from whom,      } genitive and
   que, whom, which (accusative).   dont, of, from whom; which, }  ablative.
                        à qui, to whom (dative).
2.     Singular.                    Plural.Masculine.   Feminine.        Masculine.    Feminine.lequel,    laquelle,      lesquels,   lesquelles, who, which.
duquel,    de laquelle,   desquels,   desquelles, of, from which.
auquel,    à laquelle,    auxquels,   auxquelles, to which.
       y, to it, of it, etc.      en, of it, of them, etc.
                      quoi, what, which, why, etc.

3. Qui stands generally for persons or things in the nominative; thus it is invariable:

Le monsieur qui entra le premier était mon père,
 The gentleman who entered first was my father.

4. As an absolute it has no antecedent.

Qui n'obéit pas aux lois n'est pas un bon citoyen,
 He who does not obey the laws is not a good citizen.

5. Interrogatively, as an absolute, it may either stand in the nominative or objective.

Qui chante?
Qui voyez-vous?
 Who sings?
Whom do you see?

6. Que stands generally in the objective; it is thus invariable, and used for persons or things.

Les visites que j'ai faites,
Les livres que vous m'avez prêtés,
 The visits that I have made.
The books which you have lent me.

7. Que, as an interrogative, has no antecedent.

Que desirez-vous?
Que dit-on?
 What do you wish?
What do people say?

8. Quoi, what, is invariable and used only of things; it may be used absolutely or relatively.

Il y avait je ne sais quoi dans son caractère qui me déplaisait,
Je ne sais à quoi vous pensez,
 There was something in his character which displeased me.
I know not of what you think.

9. Dont, whose, of whom, of which, used for persons and things, is invariable.

Je parle des parents dont l'enfant s'est noyé hier,

Ce dont vous parliez hier est arrivé,
 I speak of the parents whose child was drowned yesterday.
Of what you spoke yesterday has happened.

10. De qui is preferable to dont whenever in English we would rather say from which than of which.

Le floriste de qui j'ai reçu ces fleurs,
 The florist from whom I have received these flowers.

11. Lequel, laquelle, lesquelles, who, which one, relate to persons and things, and should stand only for nominatives and objectives, to avoid ambiguity.

Voilà deux vases, lequel voulez-vous?
Laquelle de vos filles est l'ainée?
L'esclave était la propriété du maître, au pouvoir duquel rien ne pouvait le soustraire,
L'homme à qui or auquel je me suis adressé,
Les femmes pour qui or pour lesquelles vous faites des emplettes,
 Here are two vases; which one will you have?
Which one of your daughters is the eldest?
The slave was the master's property, from the power of whom nothing could extricate him.
The man to whom I have applied.
The women for whom you make some purchases.

12. En, of it, of them, is invariable, and relates mostly to animals and things.

Vous en parlez, you speak of it.
 J'en ai, I have some of it.

(See en joined to the verb avoir, in § 33.)

13. Y, to it, to them, thereto, of it, is invariable. It is used of things. Adverbially it means there.

J'y pense nuit et jour,
Je vous promets d'y être,
 I think of it day and night.
I promise you to be there.

§ 30. Indefinite Pronouns.

1. These pronouns refer to persons and things in a general way:

autrui, others.
chacun, every one.
quelqu'un, some one, somebody.
quiconque, whoever.
l'un l'autre, one another.
 on, one, people, they.
personne, no one, nobody.
l'un et l'autre, both.
tel, such, many a one.
tout, everything, all.

2. A autrui, to others, d'autrui, of others, apply only to persons.

Ne fais à autrui ce que tu ne voudrais pas qu'on te fit,
C'est de la folie de s'affliger des succès d'autrui or des autres,
 Do not unto others that which thou wouldst not like to be done unto thee.
It is folly to grieve at the success of other people.

3. Chacun, chacune.

Chacun pour soi et Dieu pour tous,
Les langues ont chacune leurs bizarreries,
 Everybody for himself, and God for us all.
Each language has its oddities.

4. On conveys the idea of plurality, and is always the adjunct of a verb in the third person. See the auxiliary verb avoir, § 31.

On dit, it is said.
 On danse, somebody dances.

5. Personne, used indefinitely, is always masculine and in the singular. As a subject to a verb it is followed by ne.

Personne ne me l'a dit,
 No one has told it to me.

N. B.--As a noun it is always feminine, even when applied to a man.

Je n'ai vu qu'une seule personne,
 I have seen but one person.

6. Quelqu'un, used in a general sense, is invariable.

Y a-t-il quelqu'un qui oserait nier ce fait?
 Is there anybody who dares deny this fact?

Used relatively it varies.

Connaissez-vous quelqu'une de ces dames, quelques uns de ces messieurs?
 Do you know any one of these ladies, some of these gentlemen?

7. Quiconque, in a general sense, is masculine. When referring to a woman it is feminine.

Quiconque est né envieux et méchant est naturellement triste,
Quiconque sera assez forte pour encourager son époux et ses fils à combattre pour la patrie sera honorée,
 Whoever is born envious and bad is of course miserable.
Whoever will be strong to encourage her husband and her sons to fight for the common country will be honored.

8. L'un l'autre, l'une l'autre, les uns les autres, les unes les autres, one another, each other.

Le frère et la soeur s'aiment l'un l'autre,
Frères et soeurs devraient s'aimer les uns les autres.
 The brother and the sister love each other.
Brothers and sisters should love one another.

9. L'un et l'autre, les uns et les autres, both.

Je les connaissais l'un et l'autre,
Je les tiens pour battus les uns et les autres,
 I knew them both.
I consider them both beaten.

10. Tel, telle, such, many a one.

C'est un homme tel qu'il vous faut,
Tel maître, tel valet,
Il est allé dans telle ville,
Tel est récompensé qui méritait d'être puni,

Monsieur un tel,
Madame une telle,
 It is a man such as you want.
Like master, like servant.
He went to such a city.
Many a one is rewarded that deserved to be punished.
Mr. Such-a-one.
Mrs. Such-a-one.

11. Tout, when used absolutely, is invariable.

Tout est perdu sauf l'honneur,
Tout est fini,
 All but honor is lost.
Everything is finished.


§ 31. Verbs.

There are five kinds of verbs--active, passive, neuter, reflective, and impersonal. In the composition of these largely enter the auxiliaries, avoir, to have, and être, to be.

§ 32. Auxiliary Verbs.
Avoir, to have (affirmatively).
INDICATIVE MOOD.


Simple Tenses.

Present.

J'ai, I have.
tu as, thou hast.
il a, he has.
on a, one has, people have.
nous avons, we have.
vous avez, you have.
ils ont, they have.

Imperfect.

J'avais, I had, was having.
tu avais, thou hadst.
il avait, he had.
on avait, one had.
nous avions, we had.
vous aviez, you had.
ils avaient, they had.
 Compound Tenses.

Past Indefinite.

J'ai eu, I have had.
tu as eu, thou hast had.
il a eu, he has had.
on a eu, one has had.
nous avons eu, we have had.
vous avez eu, you have had.
ils ont eu, they have had.

Pluperfect.

J'avais eu, I had had.
tu avais eu, thou hadst had.
il avait eu, he had had.
on avait eu, one had had.
nous avions eu, we had had.
vous aviez eu, you had had.
ils avaient eu, they had had.
Past Definite.

J'eus, I had or did have.
tu eus, thou hadst.
il eut, he had.
on eut, one had.
nous eûmes, we had.
vous eûtes, you had.
ils eurent, they had.

First Future.

J'aurai, I shall or will have.
tu auras, thou wilt have.
il aura, he will have.
on aura, one will have.
nous aurons, we shall have.
vous aurez, you will have.
ils auront, they will have.
 Past Anterior.

J'eus eu, I had had.
tu eus eu, thou hadst had.
il eut eu, he had had.
on eut eu, one had had.
nous eûmes eu, we had had.
vous eûtes eu, you had had.
ils eurent eu, they had had.

Second Future.

J'aurai eu, I shall or will have had.
tu auras eu, thou shalt have had.
il aura eu, he will have had.
on aura eu, one will have had.
nous aurons eu, we will have had.
vous aurez eu, you will have had.
ils auront eu, they will have had.

CONDITIONAL MOOD.

Present.

J'aurais, I should have.
tu aurais, thou wouldst have.
il aurait, he would have.
on aurait, one would have.
nous aurions, we should have.
vous auriez, you would have.
ils auraient, they would have.
 Past.

J'aurais eu, I should have had.
tu aurais eu, thou wouldst have had.
il aurait eu, he would have had.
on aurait eu, one would have had.
nous aurions eu, we should have had.
vous auriez eu, you should have had.
ils auraient eu, they should have had.

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

aie, have.
qu'il ait, let him have.
qu'on ait, let some one have.
ayons, let us have.
ayez, have ye or you.
qu'ils aient, let them have.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

Present.

On s'étonne, they are astonished:
que j'aie, that I may have.
que tu aies, that thou mayst have.
qu'il ait, that he may have.
qu'on ait, that one may have.
que nous ayons, that we may have.
que vous ayez, that you may have.
qu'ils aient, that they may have.

Imperfect.

On a défendu, they have forbidden:
que j'eusse, that I might have.
que tu eusses, that thou mightst have.
qu'il eût, that he might have.
qu'on eût, that one might have.
que nous eussions, that we might have.
que vous eussiez, that you might have.
qu'ils eussent, that they might have.
 Past.

On est ravi, they are delighted:
que j'aie eu, that I may have had.
que tu aies eu, that thou mayst have had.
qu'il ait eu, that he may have had.
qu'on ait eu, that one may have had.
que nous ayons eu, that we may have had.
que vous ayez eu, that you may have had.
qu'ils aient eu, that they may have had.

Pluperfect.

On aurait préféré, they would have preferred:
que j'eusse eu, that I might have had.
que tu eusses eu, that thou mightst have had.
qu'il eût eu, that he might have had.
qu'on eût eu, that one might have had.
que nous eussions eu, that we might have had.
que vous eussiez eu, that you might have had.
qu'ils eussent eu, that they might have had.

INFINITIVE MOOD.

Present.
avoir, to have.
 Past.
avoir eu, to have had.

Participle.

Present.
ayant, having.
 Compound.
ayant eu, having had.
 Past.
eu, had.

§ 33. Models. Avoir with Adjuncts.

Avoir in combination with particles. These particles retain their respective places, just as given in the models, throughout its conjugation. (The student should write these models out.)

Assertives.

1. Je l'ai, I have it.
2. J'en ai, I have some.
3. J'y ai, I have there.
4. Je n'ai pas, I have not.
5. Je ne l'ai pas, I have it not.
6. Je n'en ai pas, I have not any.
7. Je n'y ai pas, I have not there.
 Je l'ai eu, I have had it.
J'en ai en, I had had some.
J'y ai eu, I have had there.
Je n'ai pas eu, I have not had.
Je ne l'ai pas eu, I have not had it.
Je n'en ai pas eu, I have not had any.
Je n'y ai pas eu, I have not had there.

Interrogatives.

8. Ai-je? Have I?
9. L'ai-je? Have I it?
10. En ai-je? Have I some?
11. Y ai-je? Have I there?
12. N'ai-je pas? Have I not?
13. Ne l'ai-je pas? Have I not it?
14. N'en ai-je pas? Have I not some?
15. N'y ai-je pas? Have I not there?
 Ai-je eu? Have I had?
L'ai-je eu? Have I had it?
En ai-je eu? Have I had some?
Y ai-je eu? Have I had there?
N'ai-je pas eu? Have I not had?
Ne l'ai-je pas eu? Have I not had it?
N'en ai-je pas eu? Have I not had some?
N'y ai-je pas eu? Have I not had there?

N. B.--By placing est-ce que before the seven assertives, interrogatives are obtained, as: Est-ce que je l'ai? Have I it? etc. Whenever in the interrogative form a-il, a-on, aura-il occur, a t is inserted to help over the vowels, as: a-t-il, a-t-on, aura-t-il.

§ 34. Être, to be.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

Simple Tenses.

Present.

Je suis, I am.
tu es, thou art.
il est, he is.
on est, one is.
nous sommes, we are.
vous êtes, you are.
ils sont, they are.
 Compound Tenses.

Past Indefinite.

J'ai été, I have been.
tu as été, thou hast been.
il a été, he has been.
on a été, one has been.
nous avons été, we have been.
vous avez été, you have been.
ils ont été, they have been.
Imperfect.

J'étais, I was.
tu étais, thou wast.
il était, he was.
on était, one was.
nous étions, we were.
vous étiez, you were.
ils étaient, they were.

Past Definite.

Je fus, I was.
tu fus, thou wast.
il fut, he was.
on fut, one was.
nous fûmes, we were.
vous fûtes, you were.
ils furent, they were.

First Future.

Je serai, I shall or will be.
tu seras, thou wilt be.
il sera, he shall be.
on sera, one shall be.
nous serons, we shall be.
vous serez, you shall be.
ils seront, they shall be.
 Pluperfect.

J'avais été, I had been.
tu avais été, thou hadst been.
il avait été, he had been.
on avait été, one had been.
nous avions été, we had been.
vous aviez été, you had been.
ils avaient été, they had been.

Past Anterior.

J'eus été, I had been.
tu eus été, thou hadst been.
il eut été, he had been.
on eut été, one had been.
nous eûmes été, we had been.
vous eûtes été, you had been.
ils eurent été, they had been.

Second Future.

J'aurai été, I shall have been.
tu auras été, thou shalt have been.
il aura été, he shall have been.
on aura été, one shall have been.
nous aurons été, we shall have been.
vous aurez été, you shall have been.
ils auront été, they shall have been.

CONDITIONAL MOOD.

Present.

Je serais, I should be.
tu serais, thou shouldst be.
il serait, he should be.
on serait, one should be.
nous serions, we would be.
vous seriez, you should be.
ils seraient, they should be.
 Past.

J'aurais été, I should have been.
tu aurais été, thou wouldst have been.
il aurait été, he should have been.
on aurait été, one should have been.
nous aurions été, we would have been.
vous auriez été, you should have been.
ils auraient été, they should have been.

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

sois, be thou.
qu'il soit, let him be.
qu'on soit, let some one be.
soyons, let us be.
soyez, be ye or you.
qu'ils soient, let them be.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

Present.

On suppose, it is supposed:
que je sois, that I may be.
que tu sois, that thou mayst be.
qu'il soit, that he may be.
qu'on soit, that one may be.
que nous soyons, that we may be.
que vous soyez, that you may be.
qu'ils soient, that they may be.

Imperfect.

On voulait, they wanted:
que je fusse, that I might be.
que tu fusses, that thou mightst be.
qu'il fût, that he might be.
qu'on fût, that one might be.
que nous fussions, that we might be.
que vous fussiez, that you might be.
qu'ils fussent, that they might be.
 Past.

On doutera, it will be doubted:
que j'aie été, that I may have been.
que tu aies été, that thou mayst have been.
qu'il ait été, that he may have been.
qu'on ait été, that one may have been.
que nous ayons été, that we may have been.
que vous ayez été, that you may have been.
qu'ils aient été, that they may have been.

Pluperfect.

On avait pensé, it was thought:
que j'eusse été, that I might have been.
que tu eusses été, that thou mightst have been.
qu'il eût été, that he might have been.
qu'on eût été, that one might have been.
que nous eussions été, that we might have been.
que vous eussiez été, that you might have been.
qu'ils eussent été, that they might have been.

INFINITIVE MOOD.

Present.

être, to be.
 Past.

avoir été, to have been.

Participle.

Present.

étant, being.
 Compound.

ayant été, having been.
 Past.

été, been.

§ 35. Models. Être With Adjuncts.

As with avoir, the particles combined with être retain their respective places, as given in the models, throughout its conjugation. (The student should write these models out.)

Assertives.

1. Je le suis, I am it.
2. J'en suis, I am of, with it.
3. J'y suis, I am there, in.
4. Je ne suis pas, I am not.
5. Je ne le suis pas, I am not it.
6. Je n'en suis pas, I am not of, with it.
7. Je n'y suis pas, I am not there.
 Je l'ai été, I have been it.
J'en ai été, I have been of, with it.
J'y ai été, I have been there, in.
Je n'ai pas été, I have not been.
Je ne l'ai pas été, I have not been it.
Je n'en ai pas été, I have not been of, with it.
Je n'y ai pas été, I have not been there.

Interrogatives.

8. Suis-je? Am I?
9. Le suis-je? Am I it?
10. En suis-je? Am I with, of it?
11. Y suis-je? Am I there?
12. Ne suis-je pas? Am I not?
13. Ne le suis-je pas? Am I not it?
14. N'en suis-je pas? Am I not with it?
15. N'y suis-je pas? Am I not there?
 Ai-je été? Have I been?
L'ai-je été? Have I been it?
En ai-je été? Have I been of it?
Y ai je été? Have I been there?
N'ai-je pas été? Have I not been?
Ne l'ai-je pas été? Have I not been it?
N'en ai-je pas été? Have I not been of it?
N'y ai-je pas été? Have I not been there?

N. B.--By placing est-ce que before the seven assertives, interrogatives are obtained, as: Est-ce que je le suis? Am I it? etc.

§ 36. Regular Verbs.

First Conjugation, ending in er.

Model Verb.
parler, to speak.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

Simple Tenses.

Present.

Je parle, I speak.
tu parles, thou speakest.
il parle, he speaks.
on parle, one speaks.
nous parlons, we speak.
vous parlez, you speak.
ils parlent, they speak.

Imperfect.

Je parlais, I was speaking.
tu parlais, thou wast speaking.
il parlait, he was speaking.
on parlait, one was speaking.
nous parlions, we were speaking.
vous parliez, you were speaking.
ils parlaient, they were speaking.
 Compound Tenses.

Past Indefinite.

J'ai parlé, I have spoken.
tu as parlé, thou hast spoken.
il a parlé, he has spoken.
on a parlé, one has spoken.
nous avons parlé, we have spoken.
vous avez parlé, you have spoken.
ils ont parlé, they have spoken.

Pluperfect.

J'avais parlé, I had been speaking.
tu avais parlé, thou hadst been speaking.
il avait parlé, he had been speaking.
on avait parlé, one had been speaking.
nous avions parlé, we had been speaking.
vous aviez parlé, you had been speaking.
ils avaient parlé, they had been speaking.