1. He is a great friend of boys, and views things from the boys' point of view.
2. In the case of the strike at Lawrence, Massachusetts, the real cause was low wages caused by immigration and child labor.
3. First, a subject must be chosen, and in choosing a subject, choose one that you know something about.
4. There are great opportunities in the field of science, and a scientist who makes a mark in the world of science makes a mark for himself everywhere.
5. While the practical man is learning skill in the practical world, the college man is attaining a development of mentality that will surpass that of the practical man when the college man learns the skill of the practical man.
6. The field is dragged and rolled. Dragging and rolling leaves the ground smooth and ready for planting.
7. A great number and variety of articles appears in every issue. There is a complete review of each subject. It is treated in a short, but thorough manner.
8. They gave me a hearty welcome. They stood back and looked at me. They wanted to see if three months in the city had made any changes in me. But they said it had not.
9. Engineering is looked upon by many students as an easy and uninteresting study, but to my knowledge it is not uninteresting and easy. Engineering is probably one of the hardest courses in college. To me it is also the most interesting.
10. A duck hunter should have a place to hunt where ducks are frequently found in duck season. Ducks often light in the backwater along a river, and in ponds. They are often found in small lakes. Corn fields are common feeding places for ducks. Ducks make regular trips to cornfields within reach of a body of water such as a river or lake. It is their nature to spend the night in the water, and in the morning and in the evening they go out to the fields to feed.

GRAMMAR

Case

50a. The subject of a verb is in the nominative case, even when the verb is remote, or understood (not expressed).

• Wrong: They are as old as us.
• Right: They are as old as we [are].
• Wrong: He is taller than her.
• Right: He is taller than she [is].

Note.—Than and as are conjunctions, not prepositions. When they are followed by a pronoun merely, this pronoun is not their object, but part of a clause the rest of which may be understood. The case of this pronoun is determined by its relation to the rest of the unexpressed clause. Sometimes the understood clause calls for the objective: "I like his brother better than [I like] him." Than whom, though ungrammatical, is sanctioned by usage.

b. Guard against the improper attraction of who into the objective case by intervening expressions like he says.

• Wrong: The man whom they believed was the cause of the trouble left the country. [They believed is parenthetical, and the subject of was is who.]
• Right: The man who they believed was the cause of the trouble left the country.
• Wrong: Whom do you suppose made us a visit?
• Right: Who do you suppose made us a visit?

Guard against the improper attraction of who or whoever into the objective case by a preceding verb or preposition.

• Wrong: Punish whomever is guilty. [The pronoun is the subject of is. The object of punish is the entire clause whoever is guilty.]
• Right: Punish whoever is guilty.
• Wrong: The mystery as to whom had rendered him this service remained. [The pronoun is the subject of had rendered. The object of the preposition is the entire clause who had rendered him this service.]
• Right: The mystery as to who had rendered him this service remained.

c. The predicate complement of the verb to be (in any of its forms, is, was, were, be, etc.) is in the nominative case. To be never takes an object, because it does not express action.

• Wrong: Was it her? Was it them? It is me.
• Right: Was it she? Was it they? Is it I.
• Wrong: The happiest people there were him and his mother.
• Right: The happiest people there were he and his mother.

d. The object of a preposition or a verb is in the objective case.

• Wrong: Some of we fellows went fishing.
• Right: Some of us fellows went fishing.
• Wrong: That seems incredible to you and I.
• Right: That seems incredible to you and me.
• Wrong: Who did they detect?
• Right: Whom did they detect?

e. The "assumed" subject of an infinitive is in the objective case.

• Right: I wanted him to go. [Him to go is the group object of the verb wanted. To go, being an infinitive, cannot assert an action, and consequently cannot take a subject. But to go implies that something is at least capable of action. Him is the latent or assumed subject of the action implied in to go.]
• Right: Whom do you wish to be your leader? [Whom is the assumed subject of the infinitive to be.]

f. A noun or pronoun used to express possession is in the possessive case. Do not omit the apostrophe (See 97) from nouns, or from the pronouns one's and other's. Most of the other possessive pronouns do not require an apostrophe.

• Right: The man's hair is gray.
• Right: The machine does its work well. [It's would mean it is.]
• Right: One should do one's duty.

g. A noun or pronoun linked with a gerund should be in the possessive case whenever the use of the objective case might cause confusion.

• Faulty: Is there any criticism of Arthur going?
• Right: Is there any criticism of Arthur's going?
• Right: I had not heard of his being sick.
• Right, but slightly less desirable: I had not heard of him being sick.

Note.—In other instances than those in which clearness is involved many good writers use the objective case with the gerund. But even in these instances most writers prefer the possessive case.

h. It is usually awkward and slightly illogical to attribute possession to inanimate objects.

• Awkward: The farm's management.
• Better: The management of the farm.
• Awkward: The stomach's lining.
• Better: The lining of the stomach.

Note.—Usage justifies many exceptions, particularly (1) expressions that involve time or measure, a day's work, a hair's breadth, a year's salary, a week's vacation, a cable's length; and (2) expressions that involve personification, explicit or implied, Reason's voice, the law's delay, for mercy's sake, the heart's desire, the tempest's breath.

i. A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person, gender, and number, but not in case.

• Right: I, who am older, know better.
• Right: Tell me, who am older, your trouble.
• Right: Many a man has saved himself by counsel.

Exercise:

1. I am as old as (he, him). They may be pluckier than (we, us). Nobody is less conceited than (she, her).
2. He gave help to (whoever, whomever) wanted it. The girls (who, whom) they say have the worst taste are on a committee to select the class pin.
3. Four of (we, us) boys were left without a cent. That is a good investment for her cousin and (she, her).
4. It was (he, him). It is (they, them). The sole occupants of the car were his chum and (he, him).
5. I had not heard of (his, him) being sick. She does not approve of (our, us) being late to dinner. (They, them) who labor now the Master will reward.

Number

51a. Each, every, every one, everybody, anybody, either, neither, no one, nobody, and similar words are singular.

• Wrong: Everybody did their best.
• Right: Everybody did his best.
• Wrong: Each of my three friends were there.
• Right: Each of my three friends was there.
• Wrong: Either of the candidates are capable of making a good officer.
• Right: Either of the candidates is capable of making a good officer.

b. Do not let this or that when modifying kind or sort be attracted into the plural by a following noun.

• Wrong: He knew nothing of those kind of activities.
• Right: He knew nothing of that kind of activities.
• Wrong: I never did like these sort of post cards.
• Right: I never did like this sort of post cards.

c. Collective nouns may be regarded as singular or plural, according to the meaning intended.

• Right: The crowd is waiting.
• Right: The crowd are not agreed.
• Right: Webster maintained that the United States is an inseparable union; Hayne that the United States are a separable union.
• English usage: The government were considering a new bill regarding labor.
• American usage: The government was glad to place our troops at the disposal of General Foch.

d. Do not use don't in the third person singular. Use doesn't. Don't is contraction of do not.

• Wrong: He don't get up early on Sunday morning.
• Right: He doesn't get up early on Sunday morning.

Exercise:

1. She said not to buy those sort of carpet tacks. These kind of apples won't keep. I don't care for these boasting kind of travelers.
2. Neither of us were in condition to run the race. Every one assured Mrs. Merton they had spent a pleasant evening.
3. He don't suffer much now. I don't care if she don't come today.
4. Each of us in that dismal waiting room were angry with the agent for telling us the train was not late.
5. No one of the girls will tell their age. It don't matter.

Agreement

52a. A verb agrees in number with the subject, not with a noun which intervenes between it and the subject.

• Wrong: The size of the plantations vary.
• Right: The size of the plantations varies.
• Wrong: The increasing use of luxuries are a menace to the country.
• Right: The increasing use of luxuries is a menace to the country.
• Wrong: The prices of grain fluctuates in response to the demand.
• Right: The prices of grain fluctuate in response to the demand. [Or] The price of grain fluctuates in response to the demand.

b. The number of the verb is not affected by the addition to the subject of words introduced by with, together with, no less than, as well as, and the like.

• Wrong: The mayor of the city, as well as several aldermen, have investigated the charges.
• Right: The mayor of the city, as well as several aldermen, has investigated the charges.

c. Singular subjects joined by or or nor take a singular verb.

• Wrong: Either the second or the third of the plans they have devised are acceptable.
• Right: Either the second or the third of the plans they have devised is acceptable.

d. A subject consisting of two or more nouns joined by and takes a plural verb.

• Right: The hunting and fishing are good.

e. A verb should agree in number with the subject, not with a predicate noun.

• Wrong: The weak point in the team were the fielders.
• Right: The weak point in the team was the fielders.
• Wrong: Laziness and dissipation is the cause of his failure.
• Right: Laziness and dissipation are the cause of his failure.

f. In There is and There are sentences the verb should agree in number with the noun that follows it.

• Wrong: There is very good grounds for such a decision.
• Right: There are very good grounds for such a decision.
• Wrong: There was present a man, two women, and a child.
• Right: There were present a man, two women, and a child.

Exercise:

1. The sound of falling acorns (is, are) one of the delights of an autumn evening. Eye strain through ill-fit glasses (is, are) injurious to the general health, but reading without glasses (is, are) often more harmful still.
2. Neither the baritone nor the tenor (has, have) as good a voice as the soprano. The guitar or the mandolin (is, are) always out of tune.
3. The Amazon with its tributaries (affords, afford) access to sea. The conductor of the freight train, along with the engineer and fireman of the passenger, (was, were) injured.
4. Ghost stories late at night (is, are) a crime against children. My reason for knowing that it is six o'clock (is, are) the factory whistles.
5. There (was, were) in the same coach a dozen singing freshmen. Years of experience in buying clothes (gives, give) me confidence in my judgment.

Shall and Will, Should and Would

53. To express simple futurity or mere expectation, use shall with the first person (both singular and plural) and will with the second and third.

To express resolution or emphatic assurance, reverse the usage; that is, use will with the first person (both singular and plural), and shall with the second and third.

In asking questions, use the form expected in the answer.

• "Shall I go?" I asked myself musingly. "Shall we take a walk?" "You promise. But will you pay?" "Will it rain tomorrow?"

Should and would follow the rules given for shall and will.

• Mere statement of a fact:
  I [or We] should like to go.
  You [or He or They] would of course accept the offer.
• Resolution or emphatic assurance:
  I [or We] would never go under terms so degrading.
  You [or He or They] should decline; honor demands it.

Should has also a special use in the subjunctive (in all persons) to express a condition; and would has a special use (in all persons) to express a wish, or customary action.

• If it should rain, I shall not go.
• If I should remain, it would probably clear off.
• Would that I could swim!
• He [I, We, You, They] would often sit there by the hour.

Exercise:

1. I (shall, will) probably do as he says. I'm determined; I (shall, will) go! We (shall, will) see what tomorrow (shall, will) bring forth.
2. The train (shall, will) whistle at this crossing, I suppose. When the log is nearly severed, it (shall, will) begin to pinch the saw. The weather (shall, will) be warmer tomorrow.
3. Johnny, you (shall, will) not go near those strawberries! He (shall, will) not leave us in this predicament. I repeat it, he (shall, will) not! We (shall, will) never sell this good old horse.
4. (Shall, will) this calico fade? (Shall, will) you give the organ grinder some money? (Shall, will) I raise the window? (Should, would) I ask his permission?
5. If you (should, would) visit his laboratory, you (should, would) learn how a starfish preserved in alcohol smells. You (shall, will) all die some day, my friends. (Shall, will) I ever forget this? Time (shall, will) tell.

Principal Parts

54. Use the correct form of the past tense and past participle. Avoid come, done, bursted, knowed, says for the past tense; and [had] eat, [had] froze, [have] ran, [has] went, [has] wrote, [are] suppose for the past participle. Memorize the principal parts of difficult verbs. The principal parts are the present tense, the past tense, and the past participle. A good way to recall these is to repeat the formula: Today I sing; yesterday I sang; often in the past I have sung. The principal parts of sing are sing, sang, sung. A list of difficult verbs is given below.

Exercise:

1. Adams —— (past tense of draw) another glass of cider and —— (past tense of drink) it. When those squashes once —— (past tense of begin), they —— (past tense of grow) like mad.
2. The thermometer had —— (past participle of fall) twenty degrees, and three water pipes had —— (past participle of freeze). Afterward one —— (past tense of burst).
3. Annie had —— (past participle of speak) a piece, and Nancy had —— (past participle of write) a poem, and Isabel had nearly —— (past participle of burst) with envy.
4. He —— (past tense of do) a brave deed; he —— (past tense of swim) straight for the whirlpool. I had —— (past participle of know) him before, and had —— (past participle of shake) hands with him.
5. He —— (past tense of come) home late, and has —— (past participle of eat) his dinner. Now he has —— (past participle of go) down town. He has —— (past participle of ride) before. I —— (past tense of see) him. He —— (past tense of run) swiftly.

Tense, Mode, Auxiliaries

55a. In dependent clauses and infinitives, the tense is to be considered in relation to the time expressed in the principal verb.

• Wrong: I intended to have gone. [The principal verb intended indicates a past time. In that past time I intended to do something. What? Did I intend to go, or to have gone?]
• Right: I intended to go.
• Wrong: We hoped that you would have come to the party. [The principal verb hoped indicates a past time. In that past time our hope was that you would come, not that you would have come.]
• Right: We hoped that you would come.

b. When narration in the past tense is interrupted for reference to a preceding occurrence, the past perfect tense is used.

• Wrong: In the parlor my cousin kept a collection of animals which he shot.
• Right: In the parlor my cousin kept a collection of animals which he had shot.

c. General statements equally true in the past and in the present are usually expressed in the present tense.

• Faulty: He said that Venus was a planet.
• Right: He said that Venus is a planet.

d. The subjunctive mode of the verb to be is used to express a condition contrary to fact, or a wish.

• Faulty: If he was here, I should be happy.
• Right: If he were here, I should be happy.
• Faulty: I wish that I was a man.
• Right: I wish that I were a man.

e. Use the correct auxiliary. Make sure that the tense, mode, or aspect of successive verbs is not altered without reason.

• Wrong: By giving strict obedience to commands, a soldier learns discipline, and consequently would have steady nerves in time of war. [Learns should be followed by will have.]
• Wrong: An automobile should be kept in good working order so that its life is lengthened. [Should be is properly followed by may be.]

Exercise:

1. Every one hoped that you would have spoken.
2. I saw it in the window. It was the very book I wanted so long.
3. If I was sick, I should go home.
4. They expected to have won the game.
5. The Masons never invite men to join their lodge, but if a person expresses a desire to join, his friends would probably be able to secure membership for him.

Adjective and Adverb

56a. Do not use an adjective to modify a verb.

• Crude: He spoke slow and careful.
• Right: He spoke slowly and carefully.
• Crude: He sure did good in his classes.
• Right: He surely did well in his classes.

b. In such sentences as He stood firm and The cry rang clear the modifier should be an adjective if it refers to the subject, an adverb if it refers to the verb.

• Right: The sun shines bright on my old Kentucky home. [Here the thought is that the sun which shines is bright.]
• Right: He worked diligently. [Here the modifier refers to the manner of working rather than to the person who works. It should therefore be an adverb.]
• Right: It stood immovable. The shot rang loud. He becomes angry. The weeds grow thick. They remain obstinate. He seems intelligent.

c. After a verb pertaining to the senses, look, sound, taste, smell, feel, an adjective is used to denote a quality pertaining to the subject. (An adverb is used only when the reference is clearly to the verb.)

• She looks beautiful. [Not beautifully.]
• The dinner bell sounds good. [Not well.]
• My food tastes bad. [Not badly.]
• That flower smells bad. [Not badly.]
• I feel good [in good spirits.]
• I feel well [in good health. An adjectival use of well.]
• I feel bad [in bad health or spirits. "I feel badly" would mean "My sense of touch is impaired."]

Exercise:

1. They fought —— (heroic, heroically). Dave stumbled ——(awkward, awkwardly).
2. Margaret —— (sure, surely) worked —— (faithful, faithfully) in economics.
3. At this reply the teacher grew —— (wrathful, wrathfully). I hear you —— (plain, plainly).
4. I feel —— (giddy, giddily). Your rose looks —— (sweet, sweetly). No perfume smells so —— (dainty, daintily).
5. That salad tastes —— (good, well). I feel —— (bad, badly) today. Your voice sounds —— (good, well) and ——(familiar, familiarly).

A Word in a Double Capacity

57. Do not use a verb, conjunction, preposition, or noun in a double capacity when one of the uses is ungrammatical.

• Wrong [verb]: An opera house was built in one part of town, and two churches in another.
• Right: An opera house was built in one part of town, and two churches were built in another.
• Wrong [verb]: He always has and will do it.
• Right: He always has done it, and always will do it.
• Wrong [conjunction]: He was as old, if not older, than any other man in the community.
• Right: He was as old as any other man in the community, if not older.
• Wrong [preposition]: He was fond and diligent in work.
• Right: He was fond of work and diligent in it.
• Wrong [noun]: He is one of the most skilful, if not the most skilful, tennis players in the state.
• Right: He is one of the most skilful tennis players in the state, if not the most skilful.

Exercise:

1. He is as old, if not older, than she is.
2. Two boats were in the water, and one on the shore.
3. From childhood he has, and to old age he will, have many hobbies.
4. A visit to a ten cent store is better, or at least as good, as a visit to a circus. You see as many or more queer things than in any show.
5. One of the greatest, if not the greatest, secrets in keeping our health, is to keep our teeth in good condition. A famous physician said that one of the next, if not the very next, marked advance in medical science will be through discoveries in the realm of dentistry.

Parts of Speech, Other Grammatical Terms, Conjugation

The Parts of Speech and Their Uses

Noun.

A noun is a name. It may be proper (Philip Watkins), or common. Common nouns may be concrete (man, windmill), or abstract (gratitude, nearness). A noun applied to a group is said to be collective (family, race). The uses of a noun are: to serve as the subject of a verb, to serve as the object of a verb or a preposition, to be in apposition with another noun (Jenkins, our coach), to indicate possession (Joseph's coat of many colors); and less frequently, to serve as an adjective (the brick sidewalk) or adverb (John went home), and to indicate direct address (Jehovah, help us!).

Pronoun.

A pronoun is a word which takes the place of a noun. It may be personal (I, thou, you, he, she, it, we, they), relative (who, which, what, that, as, and compounds whoever, whichsoever, etc.), interrogative (who, which, what), demonstrative (this, that, these, those), or indefinite (some, any, one, each, either, neither, none, few, all, both, etc.). Strictly speaking, the last two groups, demonstratives and indefinites, are adjectives used as pronouns. Certain pronouns are also used as adjectives, notably the possessives (my, his, their, etc.) and the relative or interrogative which and what. The addition of -self to a personal pronoun forms a reflexive pronoun or intensive (I blamed myself. You yourself are at fault). A noun for which the pronoun stands is called the antecedent. The uses of pronouns are in general the same as those of nouns. In addition, relatives serve as connectives (the man who spoke), interrogatives ask questions (what man?), and demonstratives point out (that man).

Verb.

A verb is a word or word-group which makes an assertion about the subject. It may express either action or mere existence. It may be transitive (trans meaning "across"; hence action carried across, requiring a receiver of the act; Brutus stabbed Cæsar; Cæsar is stabbed) or intransitive (not requiring a receiver of the act: Montgomery fell). Its meaning is dependent upon its voice, mode, and tense. Voice shows the relationship between the subject and the assertion made by the verb. The active voice shows the subject as actor (They elected Washington); the passive voice, as acted upon (Washington was elected). (A transitive verb may be active or passive, but an intransitive verb has no voice.) Mode indicates the manner of predicating an action, whether as assertion, condition, command, etc. There are three modes in English. The indicative mode affirms or denies (He went. She did not dance.) The subjunctive expresses condition or wish (If he were older, he would be wiser. Would that I were there!). The imperative expresses command or exhortation (Remain there. Go! Let us pray). Modal auxiliaries with these three modes form modal aspects of the verb. There are as many different aspects as there are auxiliaries. Aspects are sometimes spoken of as separate modes or called collectively the "potential mode." Tense expresses the time of the action or existence. The tenses are the present, the past, the future (employing the auxiliaries shall and will), the perfect (employing have), the past perfect (employing had), and the future perfect (employing shall have and will have). Verbals are certain forms of the verb used as other parts of speech (noun, adjective, adverb). For the verbal forms, infinitive, gerund, and participle, see the separate headings.

Adjective.

An adjective is a word used to modify a noun or pronoun. An adjective may be attributive (bright sun, cool-headed adventurers) or predicate (The field is broad. The meat tastes bad. I want this ready by Christmas). Adjectives assume three forms known as degrees of comparison. The positive degree indicates the simple quality of the object without reference to any other. The comparative degree indicates that two objects are compared (Stanley is the older brother). The superlative degree indicates that three or more objects are compared (Stanley is the oldest child in the family) or that the speaker feels great interest or emotion (A most excellent record). Ordinarily er or r is added to the positive to form the comparative, and est or st to the positive to form the superlative (brave, braver, bravest). But some adjectives (sometimes those of two, and always those of more than two, syllables) prefix more (or less) to the positive to form the comparative, and most (or least) to the positive to form the superlative (beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful). Some adjectives express qualities that do not permit comparison (dead, four-sided, unique).

Adverb.

An adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, another adverb (She played well; unusually handsome; very sternly); or, more rarely, a verbal noun (Walking fast is good for the health), a preposition (The ship drifted almost upon the breakers), or a conjunction (It came just when we wished). Certain adverbs (fatally, entirely) do not logically admit of comparison. Those that do are compared like adjectives of more than two syllables (slowly, more or less slowly, most or least slowly).

Preposition.

A preposition is a connective placed before a substantive (called its object) in order to subordinate the substantive to some other word in a sentence (The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power. He ran toward the enemy without fear).

Conjunction.

A conjunction is a word used to join together words, phrases, clauses, or sentences. A coördinate conjunction connects elements of equal rank (See 36). Correlative conjunctions are conjunctions used in pairs (See 31). A subordinate conjunction is one that connects elements unequal in rank (See 36). When a conjunction, in addition to its function as a connective, indicates a relation of time, place, or cause, it is often called a conjunctive adverb or relative adverb.

Interjection.

An interjection is a word thrown into speech to express emotion. It has no grammatical connection with other words. (Oh, is that it? Well, I'll do it. Hark!)

Other Grammatical Terms

Absolute expression.

An expression (usually composed of a substantive and a participle, perhaps with modifiers) which, though not formally and grammatically joined, is in thought related to the remainder of the sentence. (The relief party having arrived, we went home. This disposed of, the council proceeded to other matters. Defeated, he was not dismayed.)

Antecedent.

A substantive to which a pronoun or participle refers. Literally, antecedent means that which goes before; but sometimes the antecedent follows the dependent word. (The man who hesitates is lost. Entering the store, we saw a barrel of apples.) Man is the antecedent of the pronoun who, and we is the antecedent of the participle entering.

Auxiliary.

Be, have, do, shall, will, ought, may, can, must, might, could, would, should, etc., when used with participles and infinitives of other verbs, are called auxiliary verbs.

Case.

The relation of a substantive to other words in the sentence as shown by inflectional form or position. The subject of a verb, or the predicate of the verb to be, is in the nominative case. The object of a verb or preposition, or the "assumed subject" of an infinitive, is in the objective case. A noun or pronoun which denotes possession is in the possessive case.

Clause.

A portion of a sentence which contains a subject and a verb, perhaps with modifiers. The following sentence contains one dependent (subordinate) and one independent (principal) clause: When the storm ceased, the grove was a ruin.

Conjugation.

The inflectional changes in the verb to indicate person, number, tense, voice, mode, and modal aspect.

Declension.

The changes in a noun, pronoun, or adjective to indicate person, number, or case.

Ellipsis, elliptical expression.

An expression partially incomplete, so that words have to be understood to complete the meaning. An idea or relation corresponding to the omitted words is present, at least vaguely, in the mind of the speaker. Elliptical sentences are usually justifiable except when the reader cannot instantly supply the understood words. Examples of proper ellipses: You are as tall as I [am tall]. Is your sister coming? I think [my sister is] not [coming]. I will go if you will [go]. [I give you] Thanks for your advice.

Gerund.

A verbal in -ing used as a noun. (I do not object to your telling. His having deserted us makes little difference.) The gerund may be regarded as a special form of the infinitive.

Infinitive.

A verbal ordinarily introduced by to and used as a noun (To err is human). In such sentences as "The road to follow is the river road," follow may be regarded as the noun of a phrase (compare the road to Mandalay), or the entire phrase may be regarded as an adjective. Similarly, in "He hastened to comply," comply may be regarded as a noun or to comply as an adverb. After certain verbs (bid, dare, help, make, need, etc.) the to is omitted from the infinitive group. (He bids me go. I need not hesitate.)

Inflection.

Change in the form of a word to show a modification or shade of meaning. At a very early period in our language there was a separate form for practically every modification. Although separate forms are now less numerous, inflection is still a convenient term in grammar. Its scope is general: it includes the declension of nouns, the comparison of adjectives and adverbs, and the conjugation of verbs.

Modify.

To be grammatically dependent upon and to limit or alter the quality of. In the expression "The very old man," the and old modify man, and very modifies old.

Participle.

A verbal used as an adjective, or as an adjective with adverbial qualities. In the sentence "Mary, being oldest, is also the best liked," being oldest refers exclusively, or almost exclusively, to the subject and is therefore adjectival. In such sentences as "He fell back, exhausted" and "Running down the street, I collided with a baby carriage," the participle refers in part to the verb and is therefore adverbial as well as adjectival.

Phrase.

A group of words forming a subordinate part of a sentence and not containing a subject and its verb. Examples: With a whistle and a roar the train arrived [prepositional phrase]. Bowing his head, the prisoner listened to the verdict of the jury [participial phrase]. In a loose, untechnical sense phrase may refer to any short group of words, even if the group includes a subject and its verb.

Predicate.

The word or word-group in a sentence which makes an assertion about the subject. It consists of a finite verb with or without objects or modifiers.

Predicate adjective.

An adjective in the predicate, usually linked with the subject by some form of the verb to be (is, was, were, etc.). (John is lazy. The soldiers were very eager.)

Predicate noun.

A noun linked with the subject by some form of the verb to be. (John is halfback. They were our neighbors.)

Sentence.

A sentence is a group of words containing (1) a subject (with or without modifiers) and a predicate (with or without modifiers) and not grammatically dependent on any words outside of itself; or (2) two or more such expressions related in thought. Sentences of type 1 are simple or complex; sentences of type 2 are compound. A simple sentence contains one independent clause (The dog barks angrily). A complex sentence contains one independent clause and one or more subordinate clauses (The dog barks when the thief appears). A compound sentence contains two or more independent clauses (The dog barks, and the thief runs).

Substantive.

A noun or a word standing in place of a noun. (The king summoned parliament. The bravest are the tenderest. She was inconsolable.) A substantive phrase is a phrase used as a noun. (From Dan to Beersheba is a term for the whole of Israel.) A substantive clause is a clause used as a noun. (That he owed the money is certain.)

Syntax.

Construction; the grammatical relation between the words, phrases, and clauses in a sentence.

Verbal.

Any form of the verb used as another part of speech. Infinitives, gerunds, and participles are verbals. They are used to express action without asserting it, and cannot, therefore, have subjects or be used as predicate verbs.

Abridged Conjugation of the verb to take

Modal Aspects