The Colorado River flows through a canyon with walls that in places present sheer vertical faces a mile in depth, and so smooth that no trail can be found by which to reach from top to bottom. The region has but slight erosion by wind, and practically none by rain. The local rainfall is very slight. So the river is the one force that has acted to cut down the rocks, and its force is all expended in the narrow area of its own bed. Had frequent rains been the rule on the Colorado plateau, the angles of the mesas would have been rounded into hills of the familiar kind so constantly a part of the landscape in the eastern half of the continent.
The Colorado is an ancient river which has to carry away the store of moisture that comes from the Pacific Ocean and falls as snow on the high peaks of the Rocky Mountains. Similar river gorges with similar stories to tell are the Arkansas, the Platte, and the Yellowstone. All cut their channels unaided through regions of little rain.
When the earth's crust is thrown up in mountain folds, and between them valleys are formed, the level of rivers is sometimes lowered and the rapidity of their flow is checked. A stream which has torn down its walls at a rapid rate becomes a sluggish water-course, its current clogged with sediment, which it has no power to carry farther. When such a river begins to build and obstruct its own waters it bars its progress and may form a lake as the outlet of its tributary streams. Many ancient rivers have been utterly changed and some obliterated by general movements of the earth's crust.
Look out of the car window as you cross a flat stretch of new prairie country, and you see a great many little ponds of water dotting the green landscape. Forty years ago Iowa was a good place to see ponds of all shapes and sizes. The copious rainfall of the early spring gathered in the hollows of the land, and the stiff clay subsoil prevented the water from soaking quickly into the ground. The ponds might dry away during the hot, dry summer, leaving a baked clay basin, checked with an intricate system of cracks. Or if rains were frequent and heavy, they might keep full to the brim throughout the season.
Tall bulrushes stood around the margins of the largest ponds, and water-lilies blossomed on the surface during the summer. The bass and the treble of the spring chorus were made by frogs and toads and little hylas, all of which resorted to the ponds to lay their eggs, in coiled ropes or spongy masses, according to their various family traditions. On many a spring night my zoölogy class and I have visited the squashy margins of these ponds, and, by the light of a lantern, seen singing toads and frogs sitting on bare hummocks of grass roots that stood above the water-line. The throat of each musician was puffed out into a bag about the size and shape of a small hen's egg; and all were singing for dear life, and making a din that was almost ear-splitting at close range. So great was the self-absorption of these singers that we could approach them, daze them with the light of the lantern, and capture any number of them with our long-handled nets before they noticed us. But it was not easy to persuade them to sing in captivity, no matter how many of the comforts of home we provided in the school aquariums. So, after some very interesting nature studies, we always carried them back and liberated them, where they could rejoin their kinsfolk and neighbours.
It was when we were scraping the mud from our rubber boots that we realized the character of the bottoms of our prairie ponds. The slimy black deposit was made partly of the clay bottom, but largely of decaying roots and tops of water plants of various kinds. Whenever it rained or the wind blew hard, the bottom was stirred enough to make the water muddy; and on the quietest days a pail of pond water had a tinge of brown because there were always decaying leaves and other rubbish to stain its purity.
The farmers drained the ponds as fast as they were able, carrying the water, by open ditches first, and later by underground tile drains, to lower levels. Finally these trunk drain pipes discharged the water into streams or lakes. To-day a large proportion of the pond areas of Iowa has disappeared; the hollow tile of terra-cotta has been the most efficient means of converting the waste land, covered by ponds, into fertile fields.
But the ponds that have not been drained are smaller than they used to be, and are on the straight road to extinction. This process one can see at any time by visiting a pond. Every year a crop of reeds and a dozen other species of vigorous water plants dies at the top and adds the substance of their summer growth to the dust and other refuse that gathers in the bottom of the pond. Each spring roots and seeds send up another crop, if possible more vigorous than the last, and this top growth in turn dies and lies upon the bottom. The pond level varies with the rainfall of the years, but it averages a certain depth, from which something is each year subtracted by the accumulations of rotting vegetable matter in the bottom. Evaporation lowers the water-level, especially in hot, dry summers. From year to year the water plants draw in to form a smaller circle, the grassy meadow land encroaches on all sides. The end of the story is the filling up of the pond basin with the rotting substance of its own vegetation. This is what is happening to ponds and inland marshes by slow degrees. The tile drain pipes obliterate the pond in a single season. Nature is more deliberate. She may require a hundred years to fill up a single pond which the farmer can rid himself of by a few days of work and a few rods of tiling.
Outside of my window two robins are building a nest in the crotch of a blossoming red maple tree. And just across the hedge, men are digging a big square hole in the ground—the cellar of our neighbour's new house. It looks now as if the robins would get their house built first, for they need but one room, and they do not trouble about a cellar. I shall watch both houses as they grow through the breezy March days.
The brown sod was first torn up by a plough, which uncovered the red New Jersey soil. Two men, with a team hitched to a scraper, have carried load after load of the loose earth to a heap on the back of the lot, while two other men with pickaxes dug into the hard subsoil, loosening it, so that the scraper could scoop it up.
This subsoil is heavy, like clay, and it breaks apart into hard clods. At the surface the men found a network of tree roots, about which the soil easily crumbled. Often I hear a sharp, metallic stroke, unlike the dull sound of the picks striking into the earth. The digger has struck a stone, and he must work around it, pry it up and lift it out of the way. A row of these stones is seen at one side of the cellar hole, ranged along the bank. They are all different in size and shape, and red with clay, so I can't tell what they are made of. But from this distance I see plainly that they are irregular in form and have no sharp corners. The soil strewn along the lot by the scraper is full of stones, mostly irregular, but some rounded; some are as big as your head, others grade down to the sizes of marbles.
When I went down and examined this red earth, I found pebbles of all shapes and sizes, gravel in with the clay, and grains of sand. This rock-sprinkled soil in New Jersey is very much like soil which I know very well in Iowa; it looks different in colour, but those pebbles and rock fragments must be explained in the same way here as there.
These are not native stones, the outcrop of near-by hillsides, but strangers in this region. The stones in Iowa soil are also imported.
The prairie land of Iowa has not many big rocks on the surface, yet enough of them to make trouble. The man who was ploughing kept a sharp lookout, and swung his plough point away from a buried rock that showed above ground, lest it should break the steel blade. One of the farmer's jobs for the less busy season was to go out with sledge and dynamite sticks, and blast into fragments the buried boulders too large to move. Sometimes building a hot fire on the top of it, and throwing on water, would crack the stubborn "dornick" into pieces small enough to be loaded on stone-boats.
I remember when the last giant boulder whose buried bulk scarcely showed at the surface, was fractured by dynamite. Its total weight proved to be many tons. We hauled the pieces to the great stone pile which furnished materials for walling the sides of a deep well and for laying the foundation of the new house. Yet for years stones have been accumulating, all of them turned out of the same farm, when pastures and swampy land came under the plough.
Draw a line on the map from New York to St. Louis, and then turn northward a little and extend it to the Yellowstone Park. The boulder-strewn states lie north of this line, and are not found south of it, anywhere. Canada has boulders just like those of our Northern States. The same power scattered them over all of the vast northern half of North America and a large part of Europe.
What explanation is there for this extensive distribution of unsorted débris?
The rocks tell their own story, partly, but not wholly. They told just enough to keep the early geologists guessing; and only very recently has the guessing come upon the truth.
These things the rocks told:
1. We have come from a distance.
2. We have had our sharp corners worn off.
3. Many of us have deep scratches on our sides.
4. At various places we have been dumped in long ridges, mixed with much earth.
5. A big boulder is often balanced on another one.
The first thing the geologist noted was the fact that these boulders are strangers—that is, they are not the native rocks that outcrop on hillsides and on mountain slopes near where they are found. Far to the north are beds of rock from which this débris undoubtedly came. Could a flood have scattered them as they are found? No, for water sorts the rock débris it deposits, and it rounds and polishes rock fragments, instead of scratching and grooving them and leaving them angular, as these are.
Professor Agassiz went to Switzerland and studied the glaciers. He found unsorted rock fragments where the glacier's nose melted, and let them fall. They were worn and scratched and grooved, by being frozen into the ice, and dragged over the rocky bed of the stream. The rocky walls of the valley were scored by the glacier's tools. Rounded domes of rock jutted out of the ground, in the paths of the ice streams, just like the granite outcrop in Central Park in New York, and many others in the region of scattered boulders.
After long studies in Europe and in North America, Professor Agassiz declared his belief that a great ice-sheet once covered the northern half of both countries, rounding the hills, scooping out the valleys and lake basins, and scattering the boulders, gravel, and clay, as it gradually melted away.
The belief of Professor Agassiz was not accepted at once, but further studies prove that he guessed the riddle of the boulders. The rich soil of the Northern States is the glacial drift—the mixture of rock fragments of all sizes with fine boulder clay, left by the gradual melting of the great ice-sheet as it retreated northward at the end of the "Glacial Epoch."
Switzerland is a little country without any seacoast, mountainous, with steep, lofty peaks, and narrow valleys. The climate is cool and moist, and snow falls the year round on the mountain slopes. A snow-cap covers the lower peaks and ridges. Above the level of nine thousand feet the bare peaks rise into a dry atmosphere; but below this altitude, and above the six thousand-foot mark, lies the belt of greatest snowfall. Peaks between six and nine thousand feet high are buried under the Alpine snow-field, which adds thickness with each storm, and is drained away to feed the rushing mountain streams in the lower valleys.
The snow that falls on the steep, smooth slope clings at first; but as the thickness and the weight of these snow banks increase, their hold on the slope weakens. They may slip off, at any moment. The village at the foot of the slope is in danger of being buried under a snow-slide, which people call an avalanche. "Challanche" is another name for it. The hunter on the snow-clad mountains dares not shout for fear that his voice, reëchoing among the silent mountains, may start an avalanche on its deadly plunge into the valley.
On the surface of the snow-field, light snow-flakes rest. Under them the snow is packed closer. Deeper down, the snow is granular, like pellets of ice; and still under this is ice, made of snow under pressure. The weight of the accumulated snow presses the underlying ice out into the valleys. These streams are the glaciers—rivers of ice.
The glaciers of the Alps vary in length from five to fifteen miles, from one to three miles in width, and from two hundred to six hundred feet in thickness. They flow at the rate of from one to three feet a day, going faster on the steeper slopes.
It is hard to believe that any substance as solid and brittle as ice can flow. Its movement is like that of stiff molasses, or wax, or pitch. The tremendous pressure of the snow-field pushes the mass of ice out into the valleys, and its own weight, combined with the constant pressure from behind, keeps it moving.
The glacier's progress is hindered by the uneven walls and bed of the valley, and by any decrease in the slope of the bed. When a flat, broad area is reached, a lake of ice may be formed. These are not frequent in the Alps. The water near the banks and at the bottom of a river does not flow as swiftly as in the middle and at the surface of the stream. The flow of ice in a glacier is just so. Friction with the banks and bottom retards the ice while the middle parts go forward, melting under the strain, and freezing again. There is a constant readjusting of particles, which does not affect the solidity of the mass.
The ice moulds itself over any unevenness in its bed if it cannot remove the obstruction. The drop which would cause a small waterfall in a river, makes a bend in the thick body of the ice river. Great cracks, called crevasses, are made at the surface, along the line of the bend. The width of the V-shaped openings depends upon the depth of the glacier and the sharpness of the bend that causes the breaks.
Rocky ridges in the bed of the ice-stream may cause crevasses that run lengthwise of the glacier. Snow may fill these chasms or bridge them over. The hunter or the tourist who ventures on the glacier is in constant danger, unless he sees solid ice under him. Men rope themselves together in climbing over perilous places, so that if one slips into a crevasse his mates can save him.
A glacier tears away and carries away quantities of rock and earth that form the walls of its bed. As the valley narrows, tremendous pressure crowds the ice against the sides, tearing trees out by the roots and causing rock masses to fall on the top of the glacier, or to be dragged along frozen solidly into its sides. The weight of the ice bears on the bed of the glacier, and its progress crowds irresistibly against all loose rock material. The glacier's tools are the rocks it carries frozen into its icy walls and bottom. These rocks rub against the walls, grinding off débris which is pushed or carried along. No matter how heavy the boulders are that fall in the way of the ice river, the ice carries them along. It cannot drop them as a river of water would do. Slowly they travel, and finally stop where the nose of the glacier melts and leaves all débris that the mountain stream, fed by the melting of the ice, cannot carry away.
The bedrock under a glacier is scraped and ground and scored by the glacier's tools—the rock fragments frozen into the bottom of the ice. These rocks are worn away by constant grinding, just as a steel knife becomes thin and narrow by use. Scratches and scorings and polished surfaces are found in all rocks that pass one another in close contact. Its worn-out tools the glacier drops at the point where its ice melts. This great, unsorted mass of rock meal and coarser débris the stream is gradually scattering down the valley.
The name "moraine" has been given to the earth rubbish a glacier collects and finally dumps. The top moraine is at the surface of the ice. The lateral moraines, one at each side, are the débris gathered from the sides of the valley. The ground moraine is what débris the ice pushes and drags along on the bottom. The terminal moraine is the dumping-ground of this mass of material, where the ice river melts.
Glaciers, like other rivers, often have tributary streams. A median moraine, seen as a dark streak running lengthwise on the surface of a glacier, means that two branch glaciers have united to form this one. Go back far enough and you will reach the place where the two streams come together. The two lateral moraines that join form the middle line of débris, the median moraine. Three ice-streams joined produce two top moraines. They locate the lateral moraines of the middle glacier.
The surface of a glacier is often a mass of broken and rough ice, forming a series of pits and pinnacles that make crossing impossible. The sun melts the surface, forming pools and percolating streams of water, that honeycomb the mass. Underneath, the ice is tunnelled, and a rushing stream flows out under the end of the glacier. It is not clear, but black with mud, called boulder clay, or till, made of ground rock, and mixed with fragments of all shapes and sizes. This is the meal from the glacier's mill, dumped where the water can sift it.
"Balanced rocks" are boulders, one upon another, that once lay on a glacier, and were left in this strange, unstable position when the supporting ice walls melted away from them. In Bronx Park in New York the "rocking stone" always attracts attention. The glacier that lodged it there, also rounded the granite dome in Central Park and scattered the rock-strewn boulder clay on Long Island. Doubtless in an earlier day the edges of this glacier were thrust out into the Atlantic, not far from the Great South Bay, and icebergs broke off and floated away.
Glaciers are small to-day compared with what they were long ago, in Europe and in America. The climate became warmer, and the ice-cap retreated. Old moraines show that the ice rivers of the Alps once came much farther down the valleys than they do now. Smooth, deeply scored domes of rock, the one in Central Park and the bald head of Mount Tom, are just like those that lie in Alpine valleys from which the glaciers have long ago retreated. There are old moraines far up the sides of valleys, showing that once the glaciers were far deeper than now. No other power could have brought rocks from strata higher up the mountains, and lodged them thus.
Nearer home, Mt. Shasta and Mt. Rainier still have glaciers that have dwindled in size, until they bear little comparison to the gigantic ice-streams that once filled the smooth beds their puny successors flow into. Remnants of glaciers lie in the hollows of the Sierras. We must go north to find the snow-fields of Alaska and glaciers worthy to be compared with those ancient ice rivers whose work is plainly to be seen, though they are gone.
Greenland is green only along its southern edge, and only in summer, so its name is misleading. It is a frozen continent lying under a great ice-cap, which covers 500,000 square miles and is several thousand feet in thickness. The top of this icy table-land rises from five thousand to ten thousand feet above the sea-level. The long, cold winters are marked by great snowfall, and the drifts do not have time to melt during the short summer; and so they keep getting deeper and deeper. Streams of ice flow down the steeps into the sea, and break off by their weight when they are pushed out into the water. These are the icebergs which float off into the North Atlantic, and are often seen by passengers on transatlantic steamers.
Long ago Greenland better deserved its name. Explorers who have climbed the mountain steeps that guard the unknown ice-fields of the interior have discovered, a thousand feet above the sea-level, an ancient beach, strewn with shells of molluscs like those which now inhabit salt water, and skeletons of fishes lie buried in the sand. It is impossible to think that the ocean has subsided. The only explanation that accounts for the ancient beach, high and dry on the side of Greenland's icy mountain is that the continent has been lifted a thousand feet above its former level. This is an accepted fact.
We know that climate changes with changed altitude as well as latitude. Going up the side of a mountain, even in tropical regions, we may reach the snow-line in the middle of summer. Magnolia trees and tree ferns once grew luxuriantly in Greenland forests. Their fossil remains have been found in the rocks. This was long before the continent was lifted into the altitude of ice and snow. And it is believed that the climate of northern latitudes has become more severe than formerly from other causes. It is possible that the earth's orbit has gradually changed in form and position.
If Greenland should ever subside until the ancient beach rests again at sea-level, the secrets of that unknown land would be revealed by the melting of the glacial sheet that overspreads it. Possibly it would turn out to be a mere flock of islands. We can only guess. North America had, not so long ago, two-thirds of its area covered with an ice-sheet like that of Greenland, and a climate as cold as Greenland's. At this time the land was lifted two to three thousand feet higher than its present level. All of the rain fell as snow, and the ice accumulated and became thicker year by year. Instead of glaciers filling the gorges, a great ice flood covered all the land, and pushed southward as far as the Ohio River on the east and Yellowstone Park in the west. The Rocky Mountains and some parts of the Appalachian system accumulated snow and formed local glaciers, separated from the vast ice-sheet.
The unstable crust of the earth began to sink at length, and gradually the ice-sheet's progress southward was checked, and it began to recede by melting. All along the borders of this great fan-shaped ice-field water accumulated from the melting, and flooded the streams which drained it to the Atlantic and the Gulf. Icebergs broken off of the edge of the retiring ice-sheet floated in a great inland sea. The land sank lower and lower until the general level was five hundred to one thousand feet lower than it now is. The climate became correspondingly warm, and the icebergs melted away. Then the land rose again, and in time the inland sea was drained away into the ocean, except for the waters that remained in thousands of lakes great and small that now occupy the region covered by the ice.
Ancient sea beaches mark the level of high water at the time that the flood followed the melting ice. On the shores of Lake Champlain, but nearly five hundred feet higher than the present level of the lake, curious geologists have found many kinds of marine shells on a well-marked old sea beach. The members of one exploring party in the same region were surprised and delighted to come by digging upon the skeleton of a whale that had drifted ashore in the ancient days when the inland sea joined the Atlantic.
Lake Ontario's ancient beach is five hundred feet above the present water-level; Lake Erie's is two hundred fifty feet above it; Lake Superior's three hundred thirty feet higher than the present beach. No doubt when the water stood at the highest level, the Great Lakes formed one single sheet of water which settled to a lower level as the rivers flowing south cut their channels deep enough to draw off the water toward the Gulf. Lake Winnipeg is now the small remnant of a vast lake the shores of which have been traced. The Minnesota River finally made its way into the Mississippi and drained this great area the stranded beaches of which still remain. The name of Agassiz has been given to the ancient lake formed by the glacial flood and drained away thousands of years ago but not until it had built the terraced beach which locates it on the geological map of the region.
When the ice-sheet came down from the north it dragged along all of the soil and loose rock material that lay in its path. With the boulders frozen into its lower surface it scratched and grooved the firm bedrock over which it slid, and rounded it to a smooth and billowy surface. The progress of the ice-sheet was southward, but it spread like a fan so that its widening border turned to east and west.
When it reached its southernmost limit and began to melt, it laid down a great ridge of unsorted rock material, remnants of which remain to this day,—the terminal moraine of the ancient ice-sheet. The line of this ancient deposit starts on Long Island, crosses New Jersey and Pennsylvania, then dips southward, following the general course of the Ohio River to its mouth, forming bluffs in southern Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. The line bends upward as it crosses central Missouri, a corner of Kansas, and eastern Nebraska, parallel with the course of the Missouri.
As the ice-sheet melted, boulders were dropped all over the Northern States and Canada. These were both angular and rounded. In some places they are scattered thickly over the surface and are so numerous as to be a great hindrance to agriculture. In many places great boulders of thousands of tons weight are perched on very slight foundations, just where they lodged when the ice went off and left them, after carrying them hundreds of miles. Around them are scattered quantities of loose rock material, not scored or ground as are those which were carried on the under-surface of the glacial ice. These unscarred fragments rode on the top of the ice. They were a part of the top moraine of the glacial sheet.
The finest material deposited is rock meal, ground by the great glacial mill, and called "boulder clay." It is a stiff, dense, stony paste in which boulders of all sizes, gravel, pebbles, and cobblestones are cemented.
The "drift" of the ice-sheet is the rubbish, coarse and fine, it left behind as it retreated. Below the Ohio River there is a deep soil produced by the decay of rocks that lie under it. North of Ohio is spread that peculiar mixture of earth and rock fragments which was transported from the north and spread over the land which the ice-sheet swept bare and ground smooth and polished.
The drift has been washed away in places by the floods that followed the ice. Granite domes are thus exposed, the grooves and scratches of which tell in what direction the ice flood was travelling. Miles away from that scored granite, but in the same direction as the scratches, scattered fragments of the same foundation rock cover fields and meadows. Thus, much of the drift material can be traced to its original home, and the course of the ice-sheet can be determined. Many immense boulders the home of which was in the northern highlands of Canada rode southward, frozen into icebergs that floated in the great inland sea. Great quantities of débris were added to the original glacial drift through the agency of these floating ice masses, which melted by slow degrees.
What would you think if the boat in which you were floating down a pleasant river should suddenly grate upon sand, and you should look over the gunwale and find that here the waters sank out of sight, the river ended? I believe you would rub your eyes, and feel sure that you were dreaming. Do not all rivers flow along their beds, growing larger with every mile, and finally empty their waters into a sea, or bay, or lake, or flow into some larger stream? This is the way of most rivers, but there are exceptions. In the Far West there are some great rivers that absolutely disappear before they reach a larger body of water. They simply sink away into the sand, and sometimes reappear to finish their courses after flowing underground for miles. Do you know the name of one great western river of which I am thinking? Is there any stream in your neighbourhood which has such peculiar ways?
Down in Kentucky there is a region where, it is said, one may walk fifty miles without crossing running water. In the middle of our country, in the region of plentiful rainfall, and in a state covered with beautiful woodlands and famous for blue grass and other grain crops, it is amazing that, over a large area, brooks and larger streams are lacking. In most of the state there is plenty of water flowing in streams like those in other parts of the eastern half of the United States. In the near neighbourhood of this peculiar section of the state the streams come to an end suddenly, pouring their water into funnel-shaped depressions of the ground called sink-holes. After a heavy rain the surface water, accumulating in rivulets, may also be traced to small depressions which seem like leaks in the earth's crust, into which the water trickles and disappears.
It must have been noticed by the early settlers who came over the mountains from the eastern colonies, and settled in the new, wild, hilly country, which they called Kentucky. The first settlers built their log cabins along the streams they found, and shot deer and wild turkey and other game that was plentiful in the woods. The deer showed them where salt was to be found in earthy deposits near the streams; for salt is necessary to every creature. Deer trails led from many directions to the "salt licks" which the wild animals visited frequently.
Perhaps the same pioneers who dug the salt out of the earth found likewise deposits of nitre, called also saltpetre, a very precious mineral, for it is one of the elements necessary in the manufacture of gunpowder. With the Indians all about him, and often showing themselves unfriendly, the pioneer counted gunpowder a necessity of life. He relied on his gun to defend and to feed his family. There were men among those first settlers who knew how to make gunpowder, and saltpetre was one of the things that had to be carried across the mountains into Kentucky, until they found it in the hills. No wonder that prospectors went about looking for nitre beds in the overhanging ledges of rocks along stream-beds. In such situations the deposits of nitre were found. The earth was washed in troughs of running water to remove the clayey impurity. After a filtering through wood-ashes, the water which held the nitre in solution was boiled down, and left to evaporate, after which the crystals of saltpetre remained.
Solid masses of saltpetre weighing hundreds of pounds were sometimes found in protected corners under shelving rocks. It was no doubt in the fascinating hunt for lumps of this pure nitre that the early prospectors discovered that the streams which disappeared into the sink-holes made their way into caverns underground. Digging in the sides of ravines often made the earthy wall cave in, and the surprised prospector stood at the door of a cavern. The discoverer of a cave had hopes that by entering he might find nitre beds richer than those he could uncover on the surface, and this often turned out to be true. The hope of finding precious metals and beds of iron ore also encouraged the exploration of these caves. By the time the war of 1812 was declared, the mining of saltpetre was a good-sized industry in Kentucky. Most of the mineral was taken out of small caves, and shipped, when purified, over the mountains, on mule-back by trails, and in carts over good roads that were built on purpose to bring this mineral product to market. As long as war threatened the country, the Government was ready to buy all the saltpetre the Kentucky frontiersmen could produce. And the miners were constantly in search of richer beds that promised better returns for their labour.
It was this search that led to the exploration of the caves discovered, although the explorer took his life in his hands when he left the daylight behind him and plunged into the under-world.
Not all lost rivers tell as interesting stories or reveal as valuable secrets as did those the neighbours of Daniel Boone traced along their dark passages underground, and finally saw emerge as hillside springs, in many cases, to feed Kentucky rivers. But it is plain that no river sinks from sight unless it finds porous or honeycombed rocks that let it through. The water seeks the nearest and easiest route to the sea. Its weight presses toward the lowest level, always. The more water absorbs of acid, the more powerfully does it attack and carry away the substance of lime rocks through which it passes.
There is no more fertile soil in the country than that of the famous blue grass region of Kentucky. The surface soil rests upon a deep foundation of limestone rocks, and very gradually the plant food locked up in these underlying strata is pulled up to the surface by the soil water, and greedily appropriated by the roots of the plants.
Part of the water of the abundant rainfall of this region soaks into the layers of the lime rock, carrying various acids in solution which give it power to dissolve the limestone particles, and thus to make its way easily through comparatively porous rock to the very depths of the earth. So it has come about that the surface of the earth is undermined. Vast empty chambers have been carved by the patient work of trickling water, which has carried away the lime that once formed solid and continuous layers of the earth's crust. We must believe that the work has taken thousands of years, at least, for no perceptible change has come to these wonderful caves since the discovery and exploration of them a century and more ago.
The streams that flow into the region of these caves disappear suddenly into sink-holes and flow through caverns. After wearing away their subterranean channels, leaping down from one level to another, forming waterfalls and lakes, some emerge finally through hillsides in the form of springs.
The cavern region of Kentucky covers eight thousand square miles. The underground chambers found there are in the limestone rock which varies from ten to four hundred feet in thickness, and averages a little less than two hundred feet. Over this territory the number of sink-holes average one hundred to the square mile; and the streams that have poured their water into these basins have made a network of open caverns one hundred thousand miles in length.
A great many small caverns have been thoroughly explored and are famous for their beauty. The Diamond Cave is one of the most splendid, for it is lined with walls and pillars of alabaster that sparkle in the torchlight with crystals that look like veritable diamonds. Beautiful springs and waterfalls are found in many caves, but the grandest of all is the Mammoth Cave, beside which no other is counted worthy to be compared.
Great tales the miners told of the wonder and the beauty of these caverns, the walls of which were supported by arching alabaster columns and wonderful domes, of indescribable beauty of form and colouring. In 1799, the year that Washington died, a pioneer discovered the entrance to a cave, the size and beauty of which surpassed anything he had seen before. After exploring it for a short distance he returned home and took his whole family with him to enjoy the first view of the wonderful cavern he had discovered. They carried pine knots and a lighted torch, by which they made their way for some distance, but the torch was accidentally extinguished and they groped their way in darkness and missed the entrance. Without anything to guide them, they wandered in darkness for three days, and were almost dead when at last they stumbled upon the exit. This is the doorway of the Mammoth Cave of Kentucky, one of the wonders of the world.
This was a terrible experience. The next persons who attempted to explore the new cave were better provisioned against the chance of spending some time underground. The pioneers found rich deposits of nitre in the "Great Cave," as they called it. Scientists visited it and explored many of its chambers. The reputation of this cavern has been spread by thousands of visitors who have come from all over the world to see it. The cave has not yet been completely explored. The regular tours, on which the guides conduct visitors, cover but a small part of the one hundred and fifty miles measured by the two hundred or more avenues. The passages wind in and out, crossing each other, sometimes at different levels, and forming a network of avenues in which the unaccustomed traveller would surely be lost. The old guides know every inch of their regular course, and their quaint and edifying talk adds greatly to the pleasure of the visitors.
From the hotel, parties are organized for ten o'clock in the morning and seven o'clock in the evening. Each visitor is provided with a lard-oil lamp. The guide carries a flask of oil and plenty of matches. No special garb is necessary, though people usually dress for comfort, and wear easy shoes. The temperature of the cave is uniform winter and summer, varying between fifty-three and fifty-four degrees Fahrenheit.
The cave entrance is an arch of seventy-foot span in the hillside. A winding flight of seventy stone steps leads the party around a waterfall, into a great chamber under the rocks. Then the way goes through a narrow passage, where the guide unlocks an iron gate to let them in. The visitors now leave all thoughts of daylight behind, for the breeze that put out their lights as they entered the cave is past, and they stand in the Rotunda, a vast high-ceilinged chamber, silent and impressive, with walls of creamy limestone, encrusted with gypsum, which has been stained black by manganese. From the vestibule on, each passage and each room has a name, based upon some historic event or some fancied resemblance. The Giant's Coffin is a great kite-shaped rock lying in one of the rooms of the cave. The Star Chamber has a wonderful crystal-studded dome in which the guide produces the effect of a sunrise by burning coloured lights. Bonfires built at suitable points produce wonderful shadow effects, which are like nothing else in the world. The old saltpetre vats which the visitors pass in taking the "Long Route" through the cave, point them back to the days during the War of 1812, when this valuable mineral was extracted from the earth in the floor of the cave. The industry greatly enriched the thrifty owners of the cave, but the works were abandoned after peace was declared.
It must be a wonderful experience to walk steadily for nine hours over the Long Route, for so pure is the air and so wonderful is the scenery that people rarely complain of fatigue when the experience is over. There is no dust on the floors of these subterranean chambers, and they are not damp except near places where water trickles, here and there, in rivulets and cascades. Pools of water at the bottoms of pits so deep that a lighted torch requires several seconds to reach the bottom, and rivers and lakes of considerable size, show where some of the surface water goes to. A strange underground suction creates whirlpools in some of these streams. People go in boats holding twenty passengers for a row on Echo River, and the guide dips up with a net the blind fish and crayfish and cave lizards which inhabit these subterranean waters. The echoes in various chambers of the Mammoth Cave are remarkable. In some of them a song by a single voice comes back with full chords, as if several voices carried the different parts. The single notes of flute and cornet are returned with the same beautiful harmonies. A pistol shot is given back a dozen times, the sound rebounding like a ball from rock to rock of the arching walls. The vibrations of the water made by the rower's paddles reëcho in sounds like bell notes, and they are multiplied into harmonies that suggest the chimes in the belfry of a cathedral.
The walls of various chambers differ from each other according to the minerals that compose them. Some are creamy white limestone arches, some are walled with black gypsum, some are hung with great curtains of stalagmites, solid but suggesting the lightness and grace of folds of crêpe. Under such hangings the floor is built up in stalactites. The mineral-laden water, the constant drip of which has produced a hanging, icicle-like stalagmite, has built up the stalactite to meet it.
Probably nothing is more beautiful than the flower-like crystals that bloom all over the walls of a chamber called "Mary's Bower." The floor, even, sparkles with jewels that have fallen from the wonderful and delicate flower clusters built from deposits of the lime-laden water which goes on building and replacing the bits that fall. "Martha's Vineyard" is decorated with nodules, like bunches of grapes, that glisten as if the dew were on them. The white gypsum in some caves makes the walls look as if they were carved out of snow. Still others have clear, transparent crystals that make them gleam in the torches' light as if the walls were encrusted with diamonds.
The cave region of Indiana is also famous. The great Wyandotte Cave in Crawford County is the most noted of many similar caverns. In some of the chambers, bats are found clinging to the ceiling, heads downward, like swarms of bees. The caverns of Luray, in Virginia, are complex and wonderful in their structure, and famous for the beautiful stalactites and stalagmites they contain. But there is no cave in this country so wonderful and so grand in its dimensions as the Mammoth Cave in Kentucky.
Once a year, when the rainy season comes in the mountainous country south of Egypt, the old Nile floods its banks and spreads its slimy waters over the land, covering the low plains to the very edge of the Sahara Desert. The people know it is coming, and are prepared for this flood. We should think such an overflow of our nearest river a monstrous calamity, but the Egyptians bless the river which blesses them. They know that without the Nile's overflow their country would be added to the Desert of Sahara. In a short time after the overflow, the river reaches its highest point and begins to ebb. Canals lying parallel to its course are filled with water which is saved for use in the hot, dry summer. As the flood goes down, a deposit of slimy mud lies as a rich fertilizer on the land. It is this and the water which the earth has absorbed that make Egypt one of the most fertile agricultural countries in the world.
The region covered by the Nile's overflow is the flood plain of this river. On this plain the Pyramids, the Sphinx, and other famous monuments of Egypt stand. The statue of Rameses II. built 3,000 years ago, has its base buried nine feet deep in the rich soil made of Nile sediment. A well dug in this region goes through forty feet of this soil before striking the underlying sand. How many years ago did the first Nile overflow take place? We may begin our calculation by finding out the average yearly deposit. It is a slow process that accumulates but nine feet in 3,000 years. If you were in Egypt when the Nile went back into its banks, you would see that the scum it leaves in a single overflow adds not a great deal to the thickness of the soil. Possibly floods have varied in their deposits from year to year, so that any calculation of the time it took to build that forty feet of surface soil must be but a rough estimate. This much we know: it has been an uninterrupted process which has taken place within the present geological epoch, "the Age of Man."
Not all the rich sediment the Nile brings down is left on the level flood plain along its course. A vast quantity is dumped at the river's mouth, where the tides of the Mediterranean check the river's current. Thus the great delta is formed. The broad river splits into many mouths that spread out like a fan and build higher and broader each year the mud-banks between the streams. Upper Egypt consists of river swamps. Lower Egypt, from Cairo to the sea, is the delta built by the river itself on sea bottom. From the head of the delta, where the river commences to divide, to the sea, is an area of 10,000 square miles made out of material contributed by upper Egypt, and built by the river. Layer upon layer, it is constantly forming, but most rapidly during the season of floods.
Coming closer home, let us look at the map of the Mississippi Valley. Begin as far north as St. Louis. For the rest of its course the Mississippi River flows through a widening plain of swamp land, flooded in rainy seasons. Through this swampy flood plain the river meanders; its current, heavily loaded with sediment, swings from one side to the other of the channel, building up here, wearing away there, and straightening its course when the curves become so sharp that their sides meet. Then the current breaks through the thin wall, and a bayou of still water is left behind.
Below Baton Rouge the Mississippi breaks into many mouths, that spread and carry the water of the great river into the Gulf of Mexico. The Nile delta is triangular, like delta, [Greek: D], the fourth letter of the Greek alphabet; but the Mississippi's delta is very irregular. The main mouth of the river flows fifty miles out into the Gulf between mud-banks, narrow and low. At the tip it branches into several streams.
From the mouth of the Ohio to the Gulf, the Mississippi flood plain covers 30,000 square miles. Over this area, sediment to an average depth of fifty feet has been laid down. In earlier times the river flooded this whole area, when freshets swelled its tributaries in the spring. The flood plain then became a sea, in the middle of which the river's current flowed swiftly. The slow-flowing water on each side of the main current let go of its burden of sediment and formed a double ridge. Between these two natural walls the main river flowed. When its level fell, two side streams, running parallel with the main river drained the flood plains on each side into the main tributaries to right and left. These natural walls deposited when the river was in flood are called levees. Each heavy flood builds them higher, and the bed of the stream rises by deposits of sediment. So it happens that the level of the river bed is higher than the level of its flood plain.
This is an interesting fact in geology. But the people who have taken possession of the rich flood plain of the Mississippi River, who have built their homes there, drained and cultivated the land, and built cities and towns on the areas reclaimed from swamps, recognize the elevation of the river bed as the greatest danger that threatens them. Suppose a flood should come. Even if it does not overflow the levees, it may break through the natural banks and thus overflow the cities and the farm lands to left and right.
Instead of living in constant fear of such a calamity, the people of the Mississippi flood plain have sought safety by making artificial levees, to make floods impossible. These are built upon the natural levees. As the river bed rises by the deposit of mud, the levees are built higher to contain the rising waters. No longer does the rich soil of the Mississippi flood plain receive layers of sediment from the river's overflow. The river very rarely breaks through a levee. The United States Government has spent great sums in walling in the river, and each state along its banks does its share toward paying for this self-protection.
By means of jetties the river's current is directed into a straightened course, and its power is expended upon the work of deepening its own channel and carrying its sediment to the Gulf. Much as the river has been forced to do in cleaning its own main channel, dredging is needed at various harbours to keep the river deep enough for navigation. The forests of the mountain slopes in Colorado are being slaughtered, and the headwaters of the Missouri are carrying more and more rocky débris to choke the current of the Mississippi. Colorado soil is stolen to build land in the vast delta, which is pushing out into the Gulf at the rate of six miles in a century—a mile in every sixteen years. The Mississippi delta measures 14,000 square miles. With the continued denuding of mountain slopes, we shall expect the rate of delta growth to be greatly increased, until reforesting checks the destructive work of wind and water.
The gradual thickening and shrinking of the earth's crust as it cools have made the wrinkles we call mountain systems. Through millions of years the globe has been giving off heat to the cold sky spaces through which it swings in its orbit around the sun. The cooling caused the contraction of the outer layer to fit the shrinking of the mass. When a plump peach dries on its pit, the skin wrinkles down to fit the dried flesh. The fruit shrinks by loss of water, just as the face of an old person shrinks by loss of fat. The skin becomes wrinkled in both cases.
The weakest places in the earth's crust were the places to crumple, because they could not resist the lateral pressure that was exerted by the shrinking process. Along the shores of the ancient seas the rivers piled great burdens of sediment. This caused the thin crust to sink and to become a basin alongside of a ridge. The wearing away of the land in certain places lightened and weakened the crust at these places, so that it bent upward in a ridge.
Perhaps the first wrinkles were not very high and deep. The gradual cooling must have exerted continued pressure, and the wrinkles have become larger. It is not likely that new wrinkles would be formed as long as the old ones would crumple and draw up into narrower, steeper slopes, in response to the lateral crushing.
We can imagine those first mountains rising as folds under the sea. Gradually their bases were narrowed, and their crests lifted out of the water. They rose as long, narrow islands, and grew in size as time went on.
Why is the trend of the great mountain systems almost always north and south? Study the map of the continents and see how few cross ranges are shown, and how short they are, compared with the others. The molten globe bulged at its equator, as it rotated on its axis. The moon added its strong pulling force to make it bulge still more. As the crust thickened, it became less responsive to the two forces that caused it to bulge. The shrinkage was greatest where the globe had been most pulled out of shape. The rate of the earth's rotation is believed to have diminished. Every change tended to let the earth draw in its (imaginary) belt, a notch at a time. The forces of contraction acted along the line of the equator, and formed folds running toward the poles. In this early time the great mountain systems were born, and they grew in size gradually, from small beginnings.
These mountains of upheaval, made by the bending of the earth's crust, and the formation of alternating ridges and depressed valleys, are many. The earth is old and much wrinkled. Other mountains have been formed by forces quite different. Volcanic mountains have been far more numerous in ages gone than they are now.
Mt. Hood and Mt. Rainier are peaks built up by the materials thrown out of the craters of volcanoes dead these thousands of years. Vesuvius is at present showing us how volcanic mountains are made. Each eruption builds larger the cone—that is, the chimney through which the molten rocks, the ashes, and the steam are ejected. Side craters may open, the main cone be broken and its form changed, but the mass of lava and stones and ashes grows with each eruption. The mountain grows by the additions it receives. Ætna is a mountain built of lava.
A third mountain system grew, not by addition, but by subtraction. The Catskills illustrate this type. This group of mountains is the remnant of a table-land made of level layers of red sandstone. The rest of the high plain has been cut down and carried away, leaving these picturesque hills, the survival of which is as much a mystery as the disappearance of the balance of the plateau of which they were once a part.
The fold that forms a typical mountain ridge has a cone of granite, the original rock foundation of the earth, and on this are layers of stratified rock, ancient deposits of sediment carried to the sea by streams. When exposed to wind and rain, the ridge is gradually worn down. In some places the water cuts away the soft rock and forms a stream-bed, that cuts deeper and deeper, using the rock fragments as its tools. Often the layers of aqueous rocks are cut through, and the granite exposed.
Sometimes the hardest stratified rock-beds resist the water and the wind and are left as a series of ridges along the sides of the main range. The crumpling forces may crack the ridge open for its whole length, and one side of the chasm may slip down and the other go up. The result is a sheer wall of exposed rock strata, layers of which correspond with those that lie far below the top of the portion that slid down in the great upheaval and subsidence that parted them. These slips are known as faults.
We know little about the substance that occupies the four thousand miles of distance between the surface and the centre of our earth. We know that the terrible weight borne by the central mass compresses it, so that the interior must grow denser as the core is approached. Scientists have weighed the earth, and tell us that the crust is lighter than the rest. The supposition is that there is a great deal of iron in the interior, and possibly precious metals, too.
Our deepest wells and mines go down about a mile, then digging stops, on account of the excessive heat. But the crumpling of the crust, and the wearing away of the folded strata by wind and running water, have laid bare rocks several miles in thickness on the slopes of mountains, and exposed the underlying granite, on which the first sedimentary rocks were deposited. On this granite lie stratified rocks, which are crystalline in texture. These are the beds, sometimes miles in depth, called metamorphic rocks, formed by water, then transformed by heat.
The wearing away of rocks by wind and water has furnished the materials out of which the aqueous rocks have been made. Layers upon layers of sandstone, shales, limestone, and the like, are exposed when a river cuts a canyon through a plateau. The layered deposits of débris at the mouth of the river make new aqueous rocks out of old. Every sandy beach is sandstone in the making. This work is never ended.
In the early days the earth's crust often gaped open in a mighty crater and let a flood of lava overspread the surface. The ocean floor often received this flood of melted rock. In many places the same chimney opened again and again, each time spreading a new layer of lava on top of the old, so that the surface has several lava sheets overlying the aqueous strata.
If the hardened lava sheet proved a barrier to the rising tide of molten lava in the chimney it was often forced out in sheets between the layers of aqueous rocks. Wherever the heated material came into contact with aqueous rocks it transformed them, for a foot or more, into crystalline, metamorphic rocks.
A chimney of lava is called a dike. In mountainous countries dikes are common. Sometimes small, they may also be hundreds of feet across, often standing high above the softer strata, which rains have worn away. Dikes often look like ruined walls, and may be traced for miles where they have been overturned in the mountain-making process.
The great lava flood of the Northwest happened when the Coast Range was born. Along the border of the Pacific Ocean vast sedimentary deposits had accumulated during the Cretaceous and Tertiary Periods. Then the mighty upheaval came, the mountain ridge rose at the end of the Miocene epoch and stretched itself for hundreds of miles through the region which is now the coast of California and Oregon. Great fissures opened in the folded crust, and floods of lava overspread an area of 150,000 square miles. A dozen dead craters show to-day where those immense volcanic chimneys were. The depth of the lava-beds is well shown where the Columbia River has worn its channel through. Walls of lava three thousand feet in thickness rise on each side of the river. They are made of columns of basalt, fitted together, like cells of a honeycomb, and jointed, forming stone blocks laid one upon another. The lava shrinks on cooling and forms prisms. In Ireland, the Giants' Causeway is a famous example of basaltic formation. In Oregon, the walls of the Des Chutes River show thirty lava layers, each made of vertical basalt columns. The palisades of the Hudson, Mt. Tom, and Mt. Holyoke are examples on the eastern side of the continent of basaltic rocks made by lava floods.
Northern California, northwestern Nevada, and large part of Idaho, Montana, Oregon, and Washington are included in the basin filled with lava at the time of the great overflow, which extended far into British Columbia. It is probable that certain chimneys continued to discharge until comparatively recent times. Mt. Rainier, Mt. Shasta, and Mt. Hood are among dead volcanoes.
Quite a different history has the great Deccan lava-field of India, which covers a larger area than the basin of our Northwest, and is in places more than a mile in depth. It has no volcanoes, nor signs of any ever having existed. The floods alone overspread the region, which shows no puny "follow-up system" of scattered craters, intermittently in eruption.