Heinrici, l. c., p. 14 f., 212;
Hagenbach-Kautsch: Encyc. d. theolog. Wiss.,
p. 28-30; Rauwenhoff: Religionsphilosophie,
Einl., xiii; Margolis: “The
Theological Aspect of Reformed Judaism,” in Yearbook of C. C. A. R., 1903,
p. 188-192. Lauterbach, J. E., art. Theology.
See Schechter:
Studies in Judaism, Intr., XXI-XXII; p. 147, 198 f.; Foster:
The Finality of the Christian Religion, Chicago, 1906; Friedr.
Delitzsch: Zur Weiterentwicklung der Religion, 1908; and comp.
Orelli: Religionsgeschichte,
276 f., and Dorner: Beitr. z. Weitrentwicklung d. christl.
Religion, 173.
For
the origin of the name Judaism, see Esther VIII, 17. Compare
Yahduth, Esther Rabbah III, 7; II
Macc. II, 21; VIII, 1, 14, 38; Graetz: G.
d. J., II, 174 f.; Jost: G.d.
Jud., I, 1-12; J. E., art. Judaism. Regarding the
unfairness of Christian authors in their estimate of Judaism, see Schechter, l. c.,
232-251; M. Schreiner: D. juengst. Urtheile u.
d. Judenthum, p. 48-58. Dubnow,
Asher Ginsberg and the rest of the nationalists underrate the religious power
of the Jew's soul, which forms the essence of his character and the motive
power of all his aspirations and hopes, as well as of all his achievements in
history.
See M. Bloch:
Tekanot, and art. Tekanot J. E. Regarding inspiration
see J. E.; Sanh, 99 a; Meg. 7 a; Maim.: Moreh, II, 45; comp.
Yerush. Ab. Zar., I, 40; Horay. III, 48 c; Levit. R. VI, 1; IX, 9; and Yoma 9 b. The
laying on of hands for ordination (Semikah)
implied originally the imparting
of the holy spirit, see J. E., art. Authority.
See J. E., art. Jubilees,
Book of. Very instructive in this connection is
a comparative study of the Falashas, the Samaritans, especially the Dosithean
sect, and the still problematical sect discovered through the document found
by Schechter, edited by him under the title Fragments
of a Zadokite Sect.
Comp. Geiger: Nachgel.
Schr., II, 37-41; also his Jud. u. s. Gesch.,
I, 20-35; Beck: D. Wesen d. Judenthums; Eschelbacher:
D. Judenthum u. d.
Wesen d. Christenthums; Schreiner, l. c., 26-34.
See Schechter: Studies,
147-181 and notes 351 f.; Mendelssohn: Ges. Schr.,
III, 321. Comp. Schlesinger: Buch Ikkarim,
630-632; Bousset: Religion d. Judenthums,
170 f., 175, and thereto Perles: Bousset, 112 f.; Martin Schreiner:
l. c., 35 f.; J. E., art. Faith and Articles of Faith (E. G. Hirsch); Felsenthal,
Margolis, and Kohler, in Y. B. C. C. A. R., 1897, p. 54; 1903, p. 188-193;
1905, p. 83; Neumark: art. Ikkarim in Ozar ha Yahduth; D. Fr.
Strauss: D. christl. Glaubenslehre, I, 25.
The Mishnaic
Apicoros corresponded to the Greek,
Epicoureios, and was
no longer understood by the Talmudists; see Schechter:
Studies in Judaism, I,
157. It is defined by Josephus: Antiquities,
X, 11, 7: “The Epicureans ...
are in a state of error, who cast Providence out of life, and do not believe that
God takes care of the affairs of the world, nor that the universe is governed by
a Being which outlives all things in everlasting self-sufficiency and bliss, but declare
it to be self-sustaining and void of a ruler and protector ... like a ship
without a helmsman and like a chariot without a driver.” Comp. also Oppenheim
in Monatsschr., 1864, p. 149.
See
Alfred v. Kremer: Gesch. d. herrsch. Ideen d. Islam, 39-41;
Goldziher, D. M. L. Z., XLIV, p. 168 f.; XLI, p. 72 f., which passages cast much light
upon the Jewish Ani Maamin.
See Jost: Gesch. d. Jud., II,
330 f.; Frankl: art. Karaites in Ersch und Gruber's
Encyclopaedie; Loew: Juedische Dogmen, Ges. s.
I, 154; Schechter, l. c.
Knowledge as intellect is brought out as
early as the Book of Wisdom, XIII, 1; see especially Maimonides:
Yesode ha Torah, I, 1-3; Moreh, I, 39; III,
28. In opposition, see Rosin: Ethik des Maimonides, 101;
Luzzatto and Hochmuth, l. c.; also Dillmann: H. B. d. alttestamentl. Theol., 204 f.
See Yoma, 86 a; T.
d. El. R., XXIV; Maimonides, H. Teshubah, X;
Crescas: Or Adonai, I, 3. Comp.
Testaments Twelve Patriarchs, Simeon 3,
4; Issachar, 5; Philo: Quod omnis probus liber, 12 and elsewhere.
See Deut. XIII, 2-6,
where prophet forms a parallel to dreamer of dreams.
God appears in a dream to Abraham (Gen. XV, 1, 12), to Abimelek (Gen. XX,
3, 6), to Jacob (XXVIII, 12; XXXI, 11; XLVI, 2), to Laban (XXXI, 24),
to Balaam (Num. XXIV, 3), and to Eliphaz (Job IV, 3-6). Dream-like visions
open the prophetic career of Moses (Exod. III, 3-6), Samuel (I Sam. III, 1,
15, 21), Isaiah (Is. VI, 1 f.), Jeremiah (Jer. I, 11 f.), Ezekiel (Ezek. I, 4), and
others. Revelation in the Bible is Mahazeh,
hazon, and
hizayon, “vision”—whence
hozeh, “seer”; or
mareh, “sight,”
whence roeh, “seer.” See also
Geiger: Urschrift, 340; 390. Prophecy without dream or vision is
claimed for Moses (Num. XII, 6-8; Exod. XXX, 11; Deut. XXXIV, 10; see Maimonides:
Moreh, II, 43-47; Albo, Ikkarim, III, 8).
The revelation on Sinai is described as “the great vision,” or
mareh: Exod. III, 3; XXIV, 17; compare
Deut. IV, 11-V, 23, according to which only a “voice” is heard. Instead
of God the later prophets see an angel, as Zach. I, 8, 11; II, 2 f. Compare
Yebam. 49 b, as to the difference between Isaiah, who saw God in a vision, and
Moses, who saw Him “in a shining mirror.” He will appear in the latter way
to the righteous in the future world, Suc. 45 b; Lev. R. I, 14; I Cor. XIII, 12.
The Hebrew word for prophecy is
passive,—nibba' or
hithnabbe', “to be
made to speak,” or “to bubble forth,”—the Deity being the active power,
while the prophet is His mouthpiece.
See Schmiedl:
Stud. u. jued.-arabische Religionsphilosophie, 191-192;
S. Horowitz: D. Prophetologie i. d. jued. Religionsphilosophie;
Sandler: D. Problem d. Prophetie i. d. jued.
Religionsphilosophie; J. E., art. Prophets and Prophecy;
Emunoth III, 4; Cuzari, I, 95;
II, 10-12; Emunah Ramah, II,
5, 1; Moreh, II, 32-48; Yesode ha Torah,
VII; Or Adonai, II, 4, 1; Ikkarim,
III, 8-12, 17; Nachmanides to Gen. XVIII, 2; Abravanel to Gen. XXI, 27;
Comp. Husik, Hist. Med. Jew. Phil., Index s. v. Prophecy; Enc.
Rel. Ethics, art. Philosophy and Prophecy.
According to the
rabbis, the working of the holy spirit ceased with Haggai,
Zechariah, and Malachi, who, with Ezra, were included also among the “Men
of the Great Synagogue.” See Tos. Sota XIII, 2; Seder Olam R. XXX;
Sanh. 11 a. See J. E., art. Synagogue, Men of the Great; Holy Spirit; Inspiration.
Comp. B. B. 14 b, 15 a; Yoma 9 b; Meg. 3 a, 7 a; I Macc. IV, 46;
Ps. LXXIV, 9; Josephus, Con. Apion., I, 8;
Philo: Vita Mosis, II, 7; Aristeas,
305-307. As to the difference between the spirit of prophecy and the holy
spirit, see Cuzari, III, 32-35;
Moreh, II, 35-37. The Essenes claimed the
holy spirit for their apocryphal writings; see IV Esdras XIV, 38; Book of
Wisdom VII, 27.
On the
disputes concerning canonical books, see Yadayim III, 5; Ab. d.
R. N., I, ed. Schechter, 2-3; Shab. 30 b; Meg. 7 a. Comp. B. K. 92 b, where
Ben Sira is quoted as one of the Hagiographa.
On the
term Torah see Smend: Lehrb. d. alttest. Religionsgesch.; Stade:
Bibl. Theol. d. Alt. Test., Index s. v. Torah; W. J. Beecher: Jour.
Bibl. Lit., 1905, 1-16; “Thora a Word Study in the Old Testament.” For Torah as
Law, see Neh. VIII, 1; Joshua I, 7, and throughout the Pentateuch; as
moral instruction, see Hos. IV, 6; VIII, 1; Is. I, 10; V, 24; XXX, 9;
LI, 4; Mic. IV, 2; Jer. XXXVI, 4 f.; XXXI, 32; Ps. XVI, 8; Prov. VI, 22; VII, 2;
Guedeman: Quell. z. G. d. Unterrichts, at the beginning; Claude
Montefiore: Hibbert Lectures, 1892, p. 465 f.
See B. B. 13 b;
Meg. III, 1; IV, 4; comp. Ned. 22 b; Taan. 9 a; Shab.
104 a; Sifra Behukothai at end; Eccl. R. I, 10; Ex. R. XXXVIII,
6. Zunz: Gottesd. Vortr., 46 f., and art.
Canon and Bible in the various
encyclopedias. As to Torah for the whole Bible, see Mek. Shira I; Sanh. 37 a, 91 b; Ab.
Zar. 17 a; M. K. 5 a; comp. I Cor. XIV, 21; John X, 34; XII, 34; XV, 25.
For Torah as Nomos, or Law, see II Macc. XV, 9.
On the
divine origin of the Torah, see Sanh. 99 a; Sifra Kedoshim 8;
Behar I; Behukothay 8. Regarding the meaning of
metammin eth ha yadayim
in the sense of taboo for the holy writings, see Geiger:
Urschrift, p. 146.
Comp. Schechter,
Aspects, p. 120-136, and see Ben Sira, XXIV, 8-23;
XVII, 11; Baruch III, 38 f.; Apoc. Baruch XXXVIII, 4; XLIV, 16; IV
Esdras VIII, 12; IX, 37; Philo: Vita Mosis,
II, 3, 9; Gen. R. I; P. d. R. El. III.
The personality
of Moses was at first exalted to almost superhuman height;
see Ben Sira, XLV, 2; Assumptio Mosis,
I, 14; XI, 16; Philo: Vita Mosis, III, 39; Josephus:
Antiquities, IV, 32 b; Bousset, l. c., 140 f. In contrast
to the Church view of Jesus the rabbis later emphasized the human frailties
of Moses: “Never did divine majesty descend to the habitations of mortal
man, nor did ever a mortal man such as Moses and Elijah ascend to heaven,
the dwelling-place of God,” taught Rabbi Jose (Suk. 5 a).
See Herodotus,
III, 8; IV, 70; Jer. XXIV, 18; H. Clay Trumbull: The
Blood Covenant, New York, 1885; Kraetschmar: D. Bundervorstellung
i. A. Test., 1896; J. E. and Encyl. of Rel. and Ethics, art. Covenant.
Ex. XXXI, 13-17;
comp. Deut. X, 16; Josh. V, 9; Isa. LVI, 4-6. See
Mek. to Ex. XIX, 5, the controversy between R. Eliezer and R. Akiba, whether
the Sabbath or circumcision was the essential sign of the covenant.
Isa. XLII,
8. Scripture always emphasizes the contrast between Israel's
God and the heathen gods. See Ex. XII, 12; XV, 11; XVIII, 11; Deut.
X, 17; also in the prophets, Isa. XL; XLIV, 9; Jer. X; and the Psalms,
XCVI, CXV, CXXXV. Absolute monotheism was a slow growth from this
basis.
See Cheyne's Dict. Bibl.
art. Name and Names with Bibliography; Jacob:
Im Namen Gottes; Heitmueller,
Im Namen Jesu, 1903, p. 24-25. The Name for
the Lord occurs Lev, XXIV, 11, 16; Deut. XXVIII, 58; Geiger,
Urschrift, 261 f.
See Baudissin,
Stud. z. Sem. Religionsgesch., I, 47; 177; Robinson Smith:
Religion of the Semites; Max Mueller,
Chips from a German Workshop, I,
336-374.
Ex. III,
14, and commentators, espec. Dillmann. Comp. art. Jahweh in
Prot. Realencyc. and Cheyne's Dict. Bible, art. Names, § 109
ff., where different etymologies are given.
See
Pes. X, 5; Ber. 16 b; Ab. Zar. 40 b; Gen. R. LXVIII, 9, referring
to Gen. XXVIII, 11 and Ex. XXXIII, 21; P. d. R. El. XXXV; Pes. Rab.
104 a; comp. LXX, Ex. XXIV, 10; see also Siegfried: Philo, p.
202, 204, 217; Schechter, l. c., 26, 34. The passage in Mekilta on Ex. XVII, 7, which
refers Makom to the Sanhedrin (after Deut.
XVII, 8), seems originally to have been a marginal note belonging to Ex. XXI, 13, where
Makom is the equivalent
of Makam,
a place of refuge, and put here at the wrong place by an error;—Against
Schechter, l. c., 27 note 1, Bousset (p. 591) thinks that
ha Makom
for God is Persian, where both space and time were deified. See Spiegel:
Eranisches Alterthum, II, 15 f.
Metaphysical proofs
for God's existence have been outlawed since Kant.
God is the postulate of man's moral consciousness. See Rauwenhoff, l. c., 236-357.
Compare C. Seligman:
Judenth. u. moderne Anschauung. The philosophy
of Bergson, which eliminates design and purpose from the cosmos and places
Deity itself into the process as the vital urgent of it all, and thus sees God forever
in the making, is pantheistic and un-Jewish, and therefore cannot be considered
in a theology of Judaism. This does not exclude our accepting minor elements
of his system, which contains suggestive hints. H. G. Wells' God
the Invisible King (Macmillan, 1917) is likewise a God in the making,
man-made, not the Maker and Ruler of man.
Ex.
XXXIII, 23; Maim.; Yesode ha Torah, I, 8, 10;
Moreh, I, 21 a; Kaufmann,
l. c., 431; Philo: Mutatio Nom., 2; Vita Mosis, I, 28; Leg. All., I, 29,
and elsewhere. See J. Drummond: Philo Judæus, II, 18-24.
See
Weber, l. c., 149 f., 157; Bousset, l. c., 302, 313; von Hartman: Das
religioese Bewusstsein. Against this Schreiner, l. c., 49-58, and Schechter,
Aspects 33 f.
See
Schmiedl, l. c., 67 ff. David Neumark thinks that both the prophet
Jeremiah and the Mishnah knew and rejected the belief in angels. See his
article Ikkarim in Ozar Ha Yahduth.
Comp. the name
Kadesh and
Kedesha for the hierodules consecrated to
Astarte. See Deut. XXIII, 18; I Kings XIV, 24; XV, 12; Hosea IV, 14.
Comp. Zimmern, l. c., p. 423.
See J. E.,
art. “Gehenna”; Mid. Teh. to Ps. LXXVI, 11, and LXXIX;
Ned. 32 a; Taan. 9 b; Yer. Taan. II, 65 b; Ab. Zar. 4 a and b; 18 b;
Ber. 7 a; Shab. 118 a; Sanh. 110 b; Gen. R. VI, 9; XXVI, 11, et al.; comp.
Romans II, 5; Eph. V, 6; I Thess. I, 10.
Hosea I-III;
XI, 1-9; XIV, 5. Comp. Micah XIII, 18; Jer. III, 8-12;
Isa. LIV, 6-8; LVII, 16 f.; Joel II, 13; Jonah IV, 2, 10 f.; Lam. III, 31;
Ps. LXXVIII, 38 et al. See Dillmann, l. c., 263 f.; Davidson
Theology of O. T., 132 f.
R. h. Sh. 17 b;
compare, J. Davidson, 134; Koeberle: Suende und
Gnade, 1905, p. 625, 634 f.; but p. 658, 614, are misleading; Weber, l. c., 154,
260, 303 f., altogether misrepresents the Jewish doctrine of grace.
Ps. XXXVI, 7;
see Davidson, l. c., 143 f.; J. E., art. Justice; Hamburger:
Realencyclopaedie, art. Gerechtigkeit;
Dillmann, l. c., 270 f.; Strauss, l. c., 596-604.
Bousset, 437 f., is misleading.
See Bousset,
l. c., 357-366; Weber, l. c., 259-279, and comp. Suk. 30 a,
where it is stated, referring to Isa. LXI, 8, that “good deeds can never justify
evil acts.”
Gen. R.
VIII, 4-5; XII, 15; Midr. Teh. to Ps. LXXXIX, 2; comp.
Ben Sira, XVIII, 11; Testaments of XII Patr.: Zebulon 9; Ap. Baruch XLVIII,
14; IV Esdras VIII, 31; Psalms of Solomon IX, 7; Prayer of Manasseh, 8,
13.
See
Harper: Code of Hammurabi, 1900; Oettli: D.
Gesetz Hammurabis und d. Thora Israels, 1903; Cohn: D. Gesetz
Hammurabis, Zürich, 1903; Grimm: D. Gesetz Chammurabis und
Moses, Cologne, 1903. Also M. Jastrow,
Hebrew and Babylonian Traditions, p. 255-319.
Emuna Rama 54. See Kaufmann,
l. c., 333 f., 352 f.; comp. Guttmann:
Religionsphilosophie des Ibn Daud, 136 f.; Albo II,
27, at the end; Maimonides: Yesode ha Torah, I, 3-4;
Hillel of Verona refers even to Aristotle's “Metaphysics.”
See Kaufmann, l. c., 334, note; Neumark, l. c., and Husik.,
l. c. passim.
Plutarch: “De placitis
philosophiae,” II, 1; comp. for the entire chapter
Dillmann, l. c., 284-295; Smend: 1. c., 454 f.; H. Steinthal: “Die Idee der
Schöpfung” in J. B. z. Jued. Gesch. u. Lit., II,
39-44.
Aboth V, 6; comp. Ab. d. R. N.,
ed. Schechter, 95; Mek. Beshallah, 5;
Sifre Debarim, 355; Pes. 54 a; P. d. R. Eli., XIX; Targ. Y. to Num. XXII,
28, where a different list of ten wondrous things is given.
The
Anshe maaseh, mentioned together with the
Hasidim in Suk. V, 4,
and Sot. IX, 15, are wonderworkers, of whom Haninah ben Dosa, the last, is
singled out. The same epithet was given to Simeon ben Yochai in Aramaic,
Iskan, see Lev. Rabba XXII, 2, and to R.
Assi, eod. XIX, 1,—where it
means, worker in nature's realm. Thus Nahum of Gimzo is called “trained
in the skill to perform miracles”—Taan. 21 a; Phinehas ben Jair was also a
wonderworker—Hul. 7 a. The whole portion regarding rain-miracles seems
to be taken from a work on the miracles of saints.
The Hebrew
term Hashgaha—Providence—is
derived from Ps. XXXIII, 14, hishgiah,
“He observes.” See J. E., art. Providence; Davidson, l. c., 178-182;
Hamburger, R. W. B. II, art. Bestimmung; Rauwenhoff, l. c., 538 f.;
Ludwig Philippson: “Israel. Religionsl.,”
II, 98 f.; Formstecher: “Religion
des Geistes,” 114-119.
H.
Teshubah V; Moreh, I, 23; III, 16-19; comp.
Cuzari, V, 20-21; Albo:
Ikkarim, IV, 1-11; Gersonides:
Milhamoth, III, 2; VI, 1-18; Isaac ben Shesheth:
Responsa, 119; Lipman Heller to Aboth III, 15. See Joel: Levi ben
Gerson, p. 56.
See J. E., art. Demonology; Satan; Belial; Enc. Rel. and
Eth., art. Demons and Spirits, Jewish; Davidson, l. c., 300-306; Dillmann, l. c., 334-340;
D. F. Strauss, l. c., II, 1-18.
See H. Cohen:
Ethik des reinen Willens, 282 f., 341 f., 428 f., 593:
“Eine Macht des Boesen gibt es nur im Mythos.”“Dieser Mythos fuehrt
folgerichtig sum mythologischen Gottmenschen.” M. Joel, in his article,
“Der Mosaismus und das Heidenthum,” in J. B. j. Gesch. u. Lit, 1904, p. 49-66,
ascribes the belief in demons to Greek influence. He holds that the prophetic
teaching of God's unity was the best bulwark against demonology and
mysticism.
See
Dillmann, l. c., 341-351; Weber, l. c., 177-190; Bousset, l. c., 336,
346; Davidson, l. c, 36-38, 115-129; Schechter, Aspects, p. 21-45; Schmiedl,
l. c., 35-48; J. E., art. Holy Spirit; Logos; Memra; Metatron; Name of
God; Shekinah; Enc. Rel. and Eth., I, 308-312.
Sanh.
IV, 5, correctly preserved in the Yerushalmi, and the addition in
the Babli, Me Yisrael,
ought not to have been inserted by Schechter, Ab. d.
R.N., p. 90.
See Jellinek:
Bezelem Elohim; Philippson, l. c., II, 58-72; Dillmann, l. c.,
325. The words of Plato (State, X, 613,
and Theætetos, 176), “Man should
strive for God-likeness through virtue, and be holy, righteous and wise like the
Deity,” may have influenced the ethical interpretation of the Biblical term.
See Dillmann,
l. c., 355-361; Davidson, l. c., 182-203; comp. Gen. R.
XIV, 11, where these three terms are given, and also
yehidah, Ps. XXII, 21;
XXXV, 17, and hayah, Ps.
XCLIII, 3; Job XXXIII, 1.
See Horovitz:
D. Psychologie Saadias; Scheyer: D.
psycholog. System d. Maimonides; Cassel's Cuzari,
p. 382-400; Husik, l. c., IX, 41; and see also
Index: Soul.
Gen. VI, 5; VIII, 21; B. Sira XV, 14; XVII, 31; XXI, 11; Ber. 5 a;
Kid. 30 b; Suk. 52 a, b; Shab. 152 b; Eccl. R. XII, 7; comp. F. Ch. Porter:
“The Yezer ha Ra” in Biblical and Semitic Studies, 93-156;
Bousset, l. c., 462 f.
Ber. 80
a. The rabbis did not have the belief that the body is morally
impure and therefore the seat of the
yezer ha ra, as is stated by Weber, l. c.,
228 f. See Potter, l. c., 98-107; Schechter: Aspects, 242-292.
It is wrong also to explain Ps. LI, 7, “Behold I was brought forth in iniquity, and
in sin did my mother conceive me,” as inherited sinfulness, as Delitzsch and other
Christian commentators have done, following Ibn Ezra, who refers this to Eve, the
mother of all men. The correct interpretation is given by R. Ahha in Lev. R.
XIV, 5; “Every sexual act is the work of sensuality, the
Yezer ha ra.” Comp.
Yoma 69 b. Needless to say that Hosea VI, 7; Isa. XLIII, 37; Job XXXI, 33
do not refer to the sin of Adam.
Saadia: Emunoth,
III, 154; IV, 7 f.; Bahya: Hoboth haleboboth, III, 8;
Cuzari, V, 20; Moreh
I, 23; III, 16; H. Teshuba, V; Gersonides:
Milhamoth, III, 106; Albo: Ikkarim,
IV, 5-10; see Cassel notes, Cuzari, p.
414.
See
J. E., art. Repentance; Claude Montefiore: “Rabbinical Conceptions
of Repentance,” in J. Q. R., Jan. 1904; Schechter, Aspects,
313-343. The works of Weber (p. 261 f.), Bousset (p. 446 f.), and Davidson (l. c.,
327-338) do not do justice to the Jewish teachings.
Pesik. 160 a-162; Shab. 56 a,
b; Gen. R. XI, 6; XXII, 12-13; XXXVIII,
9; XLIX, 6; P. R. El. XX; XLIII; Num. R. XVIII, 6; Ab. d. R. N. I, 32;
Sanh. 102 b.
With its
azkarah, the flame of
incense rising in “pyramidal” form, generally
translated “memorial,” or “memorial-part.” Lev. II, 9, 16. For sacrifice
as means of atonement see Schechter: Aspects,
295-301.
Cuzari, II,
25, see note by Cassel; Moreh, III, 32; comp. Midrash Tadshe
12; I, 177 f.; comp. Hebrews IX-X; Barnabas,
I, 25. S. R. Hirsch in Horeb
p. 639 f.
See Philipson:
The Reform Movement in Judaism for the various views
and debates on sacrifice and prayer. I. Elbogen: D. jued. Gottesdienst i.
s. geschichtl. Entwicklung, p. 374 f., 435 f., is written in a more conservative spirit
and unfavorable to American Reform Judaism. Comp. for the traditional
liturgy: Dembitz: Jewish Services in the Synagogue and Home,
especially on the Prayerbook, p. 233-246, and for America,
497-499.
Ps.
LXV, 3. See Wm. James: Varieties of Rel. Experience, 463-477;
Foster: Function of Religion, 183-185; Abelson:
Jewish Mysticism, p. 15 and
elsewhere.
Job
XIX, 25 f., challenges God to be his vindicator on earth or on his tomb,
testifying to his righteousness. Resurrection is denied directly: VII, 8-21;
XIV, 12-22. The whole argument of the book excludes the
thought.
Dan. XII, 2, and comp. II Macc.
VII, 9-36; XII, 43, and the Apocalyptic
books such as Enoch, Test. Twelve Patriarchs, Jubilees, Psalms of Solomon,
IV Ezra and Baruch Apocalypse, whereas I Macc., Judith and Tobit, belonging
to the Sadducean circles, never allude to the future life.
Passages like Ps.
IX, 18; XI, 6; XLIX, 15, comp. with Isa. XXXIII,
14; LXV, 24; Mal. III, 19, lent themselves especially to this conception of
Sheol as a fiery place of punishment identified afterwards with
Gehinnom.
Jer. VII, 31 f.; XIX, 6. See J. E., art. Gehenna, and R.
H. Charles, Hebrew, Jewish and Christian Eschatology,
2d, 1913, p. 75 f., 132, 160 f., 292 f.
Philo:
Leg. All. III, 38; Migrat. Abrah. 12; De Concupiscentia, 2; De
Fortitudine, 3; Drummond: Philo, I, 318 f.;
Bentwich: Philo, 178, 181; Windleband-Tufts
on Plato, 123 f., on Philo, 231, comp. Bousset, l. c., 508; Rhode:
Psyche, 557 f.
Schmiedl, l. c., 149; Neumark, l.
c., 536 f., 551, 558, 573, 586; Husik,
l. c., 281 f. Comp. Scheyer: d. Psychol. Syst.
d. Maim.; Simon, Aspects of
the Hebrew Genius, 75-78, 86.
Singer's
Prayerb., 45. The Rabb. Conf. of Philadelphia in 1869 passed the
resolution: “The belief in the Resurrection of the Body has no religious foundation
(in Judaism), and the doctrine of Immortality refers to the after-existence
of the Soul only,” Comp. D. Philipson: l. c., p. 489 and 492.
See
especially Sanh. 90 b-92 b, ref. to Ex. VI, 4; Deut. XI, 9; IV,
5; XXXI, 16; Isa. XXVI, 19; Dan. XII, 13; Ps. LXXII, 16; also Ex. XV,
1; Josh. VIII, 30; and Song of Songs, VII, 10. On the Second Death see
Targ. to Deut. XXXIII, 6; Isa. XIV,
19; LXV, 6; Jer. LI, 39; and Revelation
XX, 6, 14; XXI, 8.
See Stave, Ueb.
d. Einfluss d. Parsismus a. d. Judenth., 145 ff.; Boecklen:
D. Verwandtschaft d. jued, christl. u. d.
pars. Eschatologie; Schorr: He Haluz,
VII-VIII.
The parable is found in an Apocryphon ascribed to the prophet
Ezekiel, see Epiphanius Haeres, LXIV, ed. Dindorf, II, 683 f. and ascribed to R.
Ishmael, Lev. R. IV, 5; in Sanh. 91 a, b it is given in a dialogue with Antonius;
in Tanh. Wayithro, ed. Buber, § 12, it is anonymous.
Tos. Sanh. XIII, 2; Sanh. 105 a; Midr. Teh. Ps. IX, 18:
“The wicked shall return to Sheol, all the nations that forget God,”
R. Joshua taking the last
sense as restrictive and R. Eliezer as a generalization.
For
the banquet of the pious see Aboth. III, 16; Shab. 153 a; Pes. R. XLI;
comp. Luke XIII, 28; XXII, 30, and parallels. The idea rests on Isa. LXV,
13, which is taken literally, and Ps. XXIII, 5; see Midr. Teh., ad loc. For the
Leviathan and Behemoth see Job XL, 15-30; B. B. 74 b-75 a; Enoch LX,
7 f.; IV Ezra VI, 52; Baruch Apoc. XXIX, 4; Targ. Ps. CIV, 26; Lev. R.
XIII, 3. For the giant bird Ziz see Ps. L, 40-41; Targ. and Midr. Teh., ad loc.;
Tanh. Beshallah, ed. Buber, 24; Jellinek, B. H. III, 76, 80. For the heavenly
manna Ps. LXXVIII, 24; Joma 75 b; Hag. 12 b; Tanh. Beshallah, ed. Buber,
21; Sibyll. Prœmium 87; II, 318; III, 746; IV Ezra IX, 19. For the wine
see Ex. R. XXV, 10; Ber. 34 b; Sanh. 99 a; Matt. XXVI, 29; comp. also
Num. R. XIII, 3 for other fruits of Paradise. For the Persian origin of these
ideas see Bundahish, XIX, 13; XXX, 25. The Behemoth
corresponds with the
primeval ox Hadhayos, whose flesh produces the sap of immortality; the giant
fish and bird with Bundahish, XVIII, 5-8; XIX, 16-19; the wine
corresponds with the Parsee Hom: Bundahish, XXX, 25. See
Windishman: Zoroastr. Stud.,
92 f., 252 f., and Boeklen, l. c., p. 68.
See J. E., art. Adam, and
Jellinek: Bezelem Elohim, Sermon IV. The term
humanity arose among the Stoics. See Reizenstein:
Wesen u. Werden d.
Humanität; comp. Schmidt, Ethik d.
Griechen, II, 324, 477; and Zeller, Griech.
Philo. III, 1, 287, 299. For the rabbinical
Berioth for humanity see B. Sira,
XVI, 16.
See Gunkel: Israel u. Babylonien;
Jeremias: Moses u. Hammurabi;
H. Grimme: D. Gesetz Chammurabi's u. Moses';
George Cohen: D. Gesetze
Hammurabi's; D. M. Mueller: D.
Gesetz Hammurabi's u. d. mosaische Gesetzgebung.
See
J. E., art. “Commerce”; American Encyclopedia, art. Jewish Commerce;
Publ. Am. Hist. Soc. X, 47; Schulman in Judaean Addresses,
II, 77 ff., and Lecky: Rationalism in Europe, II, 272.
See Gressmann: Urspr. d. israel. u.
jued. Eschatologie,—an instructive work,
but full of unsubstantiated assertions, thus failing to do justice to the creative
genius of the Jewish prophets.
Jer.
XXIII, 5; XXXIII, 15; Zech. III, 8; VI, 12; see Sellin. l. c.
Compare Ps. LXXX, 16 f.; LXXXIV, 10; LXXXIX, 39, 52; CXXX, 10;
see Ewald's commentary.
See Einhorn: Sinai
I, 133; Leopold Stein: Schrift des Lebens, 320, 336.
For the term Messiah comp. Ps. LV, 15; Hab. III, 13; also Ps. XXVIII,
8; LXXXIV, 10; LXXXIX, 39, 52.
Isa. XXVI, 19. Instead of “my
dead bodies” in the new Bible translation,
read “thy dead,” and instead of “light” translate
oroth, after II Kings IV, 39,
“herb,” which means “dew of revival”; the last is also
a rabbinic term.
Yeb.
98 a, ref. to Ezek. XXIII, 20; Ab. Z., l. c. In this sense we must
take the Talmudic passage: “Israel are really men, not the heathen,” Yeb.
61 a; B. M. 114 b; B. B. 16 b; whereas the passage, Lev. XVIII, 5, “which
man doth to live thereby,” is declared to include all who observe the laws of
humanity, Sifra eodem; Midr. Teh. Ps. I, 1-2.
Ezek. XXVIII, 10; XXXI, 18; XXXII, 19-32.
Possibly the prophet in speaking of arelim
had in mind the Babylonian Arallu, “the
nether-world”; see Ex. R. XIX, 5; Gen. R. XL; VIII, 7; Tanh. Lek Leka, ed.
Buber, 27.
Ex. XXII, 26; Philo II, 166; Josephus:
Ant., IV, 8, 10; Con. Apio., II,
34; comp. Kohler: “The Halakic Portions in Josephus' Antiquities,” in
H. U. C. Monthly III, 117.
See Meg. 16 a; J. E., art.
Aristotle; Neumark, l. c., Index: Aristoteles,
Plato, Plotin; comp. Bahya: Hoboth ha Lebaboth,
and other medieval philosophic works.
Gen. XXIII, 4; Lev. XX, 35. On the
term Ger see W. R. Smith: The
Religion of the Semites, 75 ff.; Bertholet: Die Stellung d.
Israeliten und Juden zu den Fremden, 28, 178; Schuerer, l. c., III, 150-188; Encyc.
Biblica, art. Stranger and Sojourner; Cheyne, Bampton Lectures,
1889, p. 429. Commerce between the Phoenicians and Greeks was protected by the Greek god
of the stranger (Zeus Xenios); see Ihering: D. Gastfreundschaft im
Alterthum, Deutsche Rundschau, 1887, showing how the Phoenicians developed the
Ger
idea in the direction of international commerce, just as the Jews developed
it toward international religion; M. J. Kohler: “Right of Asylum” in Am.
Law Review, LI, p. 381.
Ex. XII, 48; see Yeb., 46 a-47
b; Mas. Gerim I-III. The opinion of
Bertholet and Schuerer concerning the semi-proselyte or
Ger Toshab is contradicted
by both the Book of Jubilees and the Talmudic sources, as will be
shown below.
Tos.
Ab. Z. IX, 4; Sanh. 56 b-57; Gen. R. XXXIV, 7; Jubil. VII, 20 f.;
Sibyll. III, 38, 762. For the thirty commandments, see Yer. Ab. Z. II, 40 c;
Midr. Teh. Ps. II. 5; Gen. R. XCVIII, 9; J. Q. R., 1894, p. 259. Comp.
also Pseudo-Phocylides in Bernays' Ges. Abh.,
I, 291 ff.; Seeberg: D. beiden
Wege u. d. Aposteldecret, p. 25. Klein:
Der aelteste christl. Katechismus; J. E., art.
Commandments.
The article ha Zedek
seems to point to Jerusalem, called “the city” or
“dwelling place of righteousness” (Zedek). See Isa. I, 21; Jer. XXXI, 23;
L, 7. Comp. “Gates of righteousness” (Zedek) for the Temple gates, in Ps.
CXVIII, 19, and the ancient legendary hero of Jerusalem,
Malki-Zedek, Gen. XIV, 18; Josephus, J. W. VI, 10; Epis.
Heb. VII, 10; and Adoni Zedek,
first king of Jerusalem, Josh. X, 3.
Josephus:
Ant. XIII, 9, 1; 11, 3; XVIII, 3, 5; XX, 8, 11; Mek. Bo XV:
Beluria (Fulvia or Valeria); Schuerer, III, 176;
Gemeindeverf. v. Juden in Rome;
Graetz: D. juedisch, Proselyten im
Roemerreich; Radin: Jews among Greeks and
Romans, p. 389. See also Crooks: The
Jewish Rate in Ancient and Roman
History.
Edom,
the name for Rome since the time of the Idumean Herod, became
the name for the Church of Rome, while
Yavan = Greek was the name given
to the Greek Church.
See Wuensche: “Urspr. d. Parabel
v. d. drei Ringen” in Lessing-Mendelssohn
Gedenkbuch, Leipzig, 1879; comp. Steinschneider, l. c., 37, 317, 319;
Hebr. Bibliogr. IV, 79; XII, 21;
Dunlop-Liebrecht: Gesch. d. Prosadichtung,
p. 221, note to 294 f.
Matt. III, 2; Luke III, 3;
Josephus: Ant. XVIII, 5, 2; see J. E., art.
John the Baptist. Perhaps John was identical with Hanan, “the hidden one,”
a popular saint called “father” by the people, and believed to be a descendant
of Moses, a grandson of Onias the rainmaker, and a rain-invoking saint himself.
See Taan. 23 b; Tanh. Waera, ed. Buber, II, 37.
J. E.,
art. Christianity; Jesus; New Testament; Simon Kaifa. Among
the Gospels, that of Luke has the oldest records, rather than Mark. See also
Spitta: D. Synoptische Grundschrift.
Paul's
opposition to the law includes the moral law, and even the Decalogue.
See Romans VII-VIII; X, 4; XIV; I Cor. VI, 1-3, 15; VII, 31;
VIII; II Cor. III, 3.
Luke VI,
20-49; comp. with Matt. V-VII; XXIII, 15-36. See Claude
Montefiore, The Synoptic Gospels, I
and II; G. Friedlander, Jewish Sources of
the Sermon on the Mount; Kohler: “D. Naechstenliebe im
Judenth.,”Judaica,
Berlin, 1912.
See J. E.,
and Enc. Rel. and Ethics, art. Pharisees; Lauterbach, “The
Sad. and Phar.,” in Stud. in Jew.
Lit., Berlin, 1913; Herford: Pharisaism;
Wuensche: Neue Beitr. z. Erläuterung d.
Evangelien.
See J. E.,
art. Mohammed; Islam; and the works of Muir, W. Robertson
Smith, Hirschfeld; of Geiger, Weil, Sprenger, von Kremer, Noeldeke, Grimme,
Dozy, and above all Goldziher, on the Koran, Mohammed and Islam; also
Enc. Religion and Ethics, VIII, 871-907.
See Draper, Conflict of
Religion with Science; Intellectual Development
of Europe; Lecky, History of Rationalism;
Andrew D. White: Warfare between
Religion and Science; Krauskopf: Jews and
Moors in Spain.
Ex. XIX, 6; Num. XXIII, 9; Deut. VII, 2-6; Isa. LXI, 6; 9; Maim.
H. Issure Biah XII, 1; Sh. A. Eben ha Ezer XVI, 1; Einhorn
in Jewish Times
1876, against Sam. Hirsch; Samuel Schulman in Y. B. C. C. A. R. 1909, comp.
D. Philipson, l. c. Index s. v. Intermarriage; J. E., art. Intermarriage; also
Mielziner: The Jewish Law of Marriage and
Divorce, p. 45-54, where the opinions
of L. Philippson, Geiger, Aub, Einhorn and I. M. Wise are quoted.
Ex. IV, 25; Josh. V, 2;
comp. Tylor: Early History of Mankind, 217-222;
J. E. and Encyc. of Rel. and Ethics, art. Circumcision;
Ploss: Knabenbeschneidung,
p. 11.
See
Ezek. XLIV, 31; IV, 14; Jud. XIII, 7, 14. The law in Ex. XXII,
30, “Ye shall be holy men unto Me, therefore ye shall not eat any flesh that is
torn of beasts in the field,” seems to have been originally only for priests and
other holy men.
See
Laws of Manu, V, 7; 11-20 in Sacred
Books of the East, XXV, 171 f.;
comp. II, 64; XIV, 38-48; 74; 184; Bundahish,
XIV; S. B. E. V, 47; Chwolson:
Die Szabier, II, 7; 102; Porphyrius:
De Abstinentia, IV, 7; Sommer, Bibl.
Abh. 271-322; J. E., l. c., 599.
For the orthodox view, see
S. R. Hirsch: Horeb, Chap. LXVIII; M.
Friedlander: The Jewish Religion, 237;
for the reform, Einhorn: Sinai, 1859;
Kohler: Jewish Times, 1872; Geiger:
Ges. Schr. I, 253 f.
Ber.
6 a, 14 b, 23 a, b; Tos. Ber. VII, 25; Midr. Teh. to Ps. VI, 1; Yer.
Peah I, 15 d; Targum Song of Songs, VIII, 3; Pes. III
b; Schorr: HeHalutz,
VII, 56-57; Baentsch: Comm. to Num. XV, 37; also Schuerer, G. V. II,
483-486.
See art. Sabbath in
various encyclopedias and the Babel-Bibel controversies;
Zimmern and Schrader: K. A. T., II, 592 f.; Jastrow: American
Journal of Theology, 1898, p. 315-352.
See Jubilees II, 23-30;
L, 6; Geiger, Zeitsch., 1868, 116; Nachgel.
Schr., III, 286 f.; V, 142 f.; Schechter: Document
of a Jewish Sect, I; XXV; XLVIII-L; Halevi:
The Commandments of the Sabbath for the Falashas,
1902; Harkavy L. K., II, 69 f., for the Karaites.
See I Sam. XX,
5-27, where the two new-moon days are spoken of as
approaching, proving the use of the Babylonian month of four weeks of seven
days each, and two new-moon days.
In
Deut. the Passover sacrifice was the first-born of the flock, see Deut.
XVI, 2, comp. with Ex. XIII, 2-16, and the celebration took place on the
night of the new moon. The Priestly Code observed it on the full moon, with
a lamb instead of the first-born sheep or cattle. Ex. XII, 3 f.; Lev, XXIII, 5
(the Holiness Code); Josh. V, 10.
R. h. Sh. IV, 6-7;
Tos. R. h. Sh. IV, 4-9; R. h. Sh. 27 a; Singer's Prayerb.,
247-254, and Abrahams Ann. CXCV, 111 f.; and Union Prayer Book,
II, 70-75.
P.
d. R. El. XLVI; Taan. 30 b; B. B. 121 a; S. Olam R. VI; T. d. El.
Zutta IV; Ex. R. LI, 4. Jubilees XXXIV, 18-19 connects the Day of Atonement
with the repentance of Joseph's brethren.
Semakot
II; R. Eleazar in B. K. 91 b with reference to Gen. IX, 5. Prof.
Lauterbach referred me to Shebet Mussar,
XX, obviously a quotation from
some lost Midrash.