CHAPTER XIII
THE EXHIBITION OF PIGS

When the exhibition of live stock at our numerous shows became common, a belief sprang up amongst non-exhibitors that the preparation for show was most deleterious to the animals shown. It was also contended that exhibitors were prone to pay attention, to a far greater extent, to the fancy or show points of the animals which they bred than to those utility points which are of infinitely more importance to the ordinary stock breeder and the consumer. It was also believed that the feeding or training which the show stock underwent seriously affected their procreative powers, and especially so with the animals of the feminine gender.

It may at once be frankly admitted that there existed some ground for the belief that a majority of the exhibitors did appear to give too great attention to the claims of the judges who were, in too many cases, chosen for reasons other than their knowledge of practical agriculture or the requirements of the consumers of meat. For so acting, the exhibitors were not beyond blame, as in the earlier days of showing, their main object was to win prizes in order to advertise their stock and so secure customers for their spare breeding animals. The actual improvement of the various breeds of stock did not in those far-off days appear to be of such vital importance as the world upheaval, of which the present generation has been the witness, has proved it to be.

It may also be fairly claimed that there has been some slight improvement in the system of feeding and training followed by the pig exhibitors of to-day. This is in part due to the fact that the cramming on rich food and giving little exercise may result in rendering the show pig in such a state of obesity as to secure the approval of the non-practical judge, who is unable to appraise the points of a pig when in its natural breeding condition, but that to be able to follow the present system of exhibiting at several successive shows and even when the bloated pig is intended to be returned to the breeding pen, this excessive feeding proved to be a grievous mistake. It may not be possible to claim that the over feeding of show animals is a thing of the past, but there is little doubt that exhibitors of pigs have become alive to the fact that it is not profitable. Not only is the expense excessive, but the damage done to the breeding animals is so great as to render it inadvisable for any ordinary farmer to follow. Again, there has of late years been a very considerable improvement in the pig classification at both the breeding and the fat stock shows. When the writer began pig showing, on his own account, fifty years since, the common classification at most of the shows was, boar any age, sows any age, and pens of three breeding pigs, not exceeding nine or in some cases even twelve months. There were no restrictions as to the age of the boar or of the sow, no condition as to utility, of the sow having at any time reared a litter of pigs or of being in pig, so that it was by no means uncommon at even some of the chief shows to find both boars and sows appear year after year, having been guiltless of any attempt to procreate their species, but having been kept solely for the purpose of winning prizes and adding to the renown of their owners, if not directly adding much to their balances at the bank. The only way in which the continued exhibition of these old stagers was made profitable was the securing of customers for breeding stock from the exhibitors, who in far too many cases were not the breeders of the winning animals. To so great an extent had this purchase, frequently from middlemen or dealers of exhibition pigs, become in the seventies of the last century, that some of the live stock papers in the United States took up the cudgels on behalf of the American breeders of pigs, who had been in the habit of importing show winners from this country and plainly asked for the English definition of a pure bred pig. It was pointed out at a recent show of the Royal Agricultural Society several winners shown by one exhibitor were entered as of certain defined breeds, yet neither age, pedigree, nor name of breeder was given, the only particulars given in the show catalogue being the name and address of the exhibitor, the name of the pig, and the further statement age and breeder unknown. As our American cousins asked, how could it be possible to ensure that a pig was of a certain pure breed when it was admitted that no knowledge existed of the breeding of the animal nor actually of the person who bred it. This scandal, as it was termed, was one of the contributing causes of the establishment of societies for the registration of the pedigrees of the various types or breeds of pigs.

Other changes which have been great improvements have been the limitation of the ages of boars and sows shown, the requirement that the sow has within a certain fixed time farrowed a litter of pigs and that when entered as being in farrow a certificate of subsequent farrowing shall be furnished ere the prize money is paid over. The age of the young boars and sows has also been reduced at most shows to six months, or the pigs must have been farrowed in the year of the show. In the good old times the age of the pigs shown in the classes for pens of two or three or five, varied from six to twelve months, and the asserted age given by the exhibitor was accepted as correct. At many of the important shows not only are some means of identification asked for, but the state of the dentition are variously dealt with; at some shows they are disqualified at once by the stewards on the certificate of the veterinary surgeon. It may at once be admitted that this mode of procedure is very hard on an honest exhibitor whose pig has for some reason developed its temporary or permanent teeth abnormally—and such cases are not unknown—- although as a rule the various stages in the cutting of the permanent teeth are very regular, the majority of the irregularities are also in favour of the exhibitor, since delayed rather than precocious development of dentition is the most common. Just how imperative it was that some steps should be taken to prevent mistakes being made in the ages of young pigs exhibited, many cases could be cited, but one may suffice where one of the sow pigs in a pen of five entered in a class for pigs not exceeding six months actually farrowed a litter of fully developed pigs in the show yard.

During the last forty years, great improvements have been made in the classification for pigs at our principal Fat Stock shows. The division of breeds or types has been attended to and the ages of the pigs in the various classes have been greatly reduced. For instance, when the writer was judging pigs with two colleagues at the 1880 show of the Smithfield Club, there were classes for Small White pigs, not exceeding nine months; above nine months, and not exceeding twelve months, and above twelve months and not exceeding eighteen months. A more ridiculous classification could not possibly have been devised since no small white pig would have paid for fattening after it had become nine months old. A similar classification existed for pigs of the Large White breed, for Black breeds, and for Berkshires. In addition there was a class for a single pig of any age or breed. The condition of some of the exhibits in the oldest classes was most pitiable, they had been stuffed to such an extent that their life must have been a misery to them, they were unable to walk any distance, and to prevent suffocation rollers were used on which to raise their heads. The only way in which to describe these unfortunate subjects of man's inhumanity was as animated bladders of lard.

At the recent shows of the Smithfield Club, not only has the age limit been greatly reduced but classes for pigs not exceeding 100 lbs. live weight have been instituted, in addition to classes for all the recognised pure breeds of pigs and those of any cross. Even this great reduction in age has not been enough to satisfy some of our reformers, as an endeavour is being made to reduce the limit of twelve months to nine months, so that in future the classes will be for pens of two pigs not exceeding 100 lbs. live weight, for pigs not exceeding six months old and for pigs between six and nine months old, with certain classes for single pigs under nine months. It is contended that fat pigs cannot be profitably kept after they reach the age of nine months. Another innovation of recent years at the Smithfield Show has been the establishment of the so-called slaughter classes. This is probably by far the greatest improvement of recent years in the pig section. Classes are provided for pigs not exceeding 100 lbs. live weight, pigs weighing over 100 lbs. and not exceeding 220 lbs., and for pigs above 220 lbs. and not exceeding 300 lbs. live weight. The pigs are first exhibited and judged alive, then slaughtered and the carcases judged on their pork merits. There is also one class for pigs above 160 lbs. and not exceeding 240 lbs. live weight best suited for the manufacture of bacon. These various classes have created great interest and have proved of the greatest educational value.

Another beneficial effect of the changed conditions is the elimination from the summer show-yards of fat sows guiltless of milk and accompanied in the pen by half a score of young boars and yelts of an age varying from three months upwards, and which together were exhibited in the class for breeding sows, or breeding sows and pigs. A fine fat sow which would take kindly to an unlimited number of adopted youngsters was in those days almost as valuable as a small gold mine. An old and well-known pigman, Dick by name, assured the writer that no fewer than sixty-three young boars and yelts were sold in one year off or when in company of one well-known sow. At the present time the pigs shown with a sow must be certified to be her produce and not to exceed the age of eight weeks.

It is at all times difficult to discover the motive power for certain actions on the part of a human being. It has been declared that there is an equal amount of doubt as to the cause of a breeder of stock wishing to exhibit his animals. Surely this last assertion is at least of a doubtful character. What greater proof could a stock breeder give of his pride in his animals than a burning desire to expose their good qualities to the public gaze. In addition to this, few men are entirely free from the spirit of gambling and this enters into all competitions, particularly in the show yards. The winning of prizes with stock may not be quite so uncertain as the winning of horse races, still, there is enough of uncertainty to render the judging ring a centre of great excitement. Some persons will even contend that the showing of farm stock is not desirable on the part of young farmers as it is likely to assume so great a similarity with gambling, that attending the shows means a neglect of business and leads to expensive habits. On the other hand, it cannot be denied that the exhibition of our improved specimens of stock has been of untold benefit to both home and foreign stock breeders. Further, the exportation of our pedigree stock has actually saved us from semi-starvation during this most fearful of all wars, as without our improved stock the native stock of foreign countries could not possibly have furnished the enormous quantities of meat which we have had to import.

It may be that a great many exhibitors of stock had little or no intention of becoming one when they first purchased their stock, but on these proving quite the equal of that possessed by their neighbour, the desire grew to suggest how good they were, or in many instances the original entries have been made in response to a request to support the local show.

This may be still another cause for a beginner in stock breeding exercising extreme care in the selection of his original stock. Even if the prime cost be higher than that of ordinary market stock the extra outlay expended on animals from well-known breeders, and out of old established herds, is certain to prove a good investment. There is just as great difference in the different families or strains of our domestic stock, as there is in the various human families and of animals, and it may be probably more true that the vast majority of the best of them are the descendants of a comparatively few ancestors. This is evident in almost everyone of the breeds of our improved stock, it is so in thoroughbred and shire horses, and so one might go through the whole list of domesticated or farm animals.

It is therefore desirable that anyone who thinks of exhibiting his pigs should endeavour first to discover the particular tribes or families which, in the past, have furnished a large proportion of the winners, and then to obtain some of the specimens of those families which have been successful in the show yards and in the breeding pen. This combination is most important, as it does not necessarily follow that a line of blood which produces prize winners shall also produce animals which are not only good in type, character, and form, but possessed of prolificacy, free milking properties, and ability to raise large litters. The difficulty of finding in some of the mere exhibition herds this most desirable combination is due, in the main, to the far too frequent neglect of the utility points, the two aims of the herdsman are in too many instances the winning of prizes for their employers and the securing of a percentage of the prize money for themselves.

Although there have been attempts made to impress on outsiders the claim that there exists in the training of pigs for successful exhibition in our show yards a large amount of mystery, yet, the practice is most simple, it consists in the employment of the greatest possible observation, care, and attention; without the continual use of these qualities it is not possible to become a really successful pigman. In very many instances just that little extra attention has turned the scales. The one chief qualification on the part of a successful stock man is the art of taking pains. Unlike most of the other exhibitors of pigs who exhibited largely over many years the writer never employed a professional pigman. The comparatively small number of pigmen who assisted him to win thousands of prizes were merely ordinary farm labourers, save in one case, and he was an old sailor, yet one of the best feeders and trainers we ever employed. He was naturally fond of animals and was never tired of waiting on them and of supplying their needs. It was once jokingly said of him that, having no children, he bestowed on the pigs in his care the love which some other people bestowed on their children. There is much of truth in the assertion made by a coloured preacher in the United States when discussing the want of success of ordinary pig-keeping in the States, the chief cause he declared was the absence of love. We would call it want of natural fondness of animals and an insufficient determination to render the conditions of life of the animals in our charge as pleasant and satisfactory as circumstances will allow. With regard to the system of rearing and feeding animals intended for exhibition, nothing more is needed than the concentrated care and attention which is required in the successful rearing and feeding of all commercial animals. A liberal supply of suitable food, prepared in the most tempting form and judiciously fed to the pigs in just the quantity required, as frequently as the pig is able to thoroughly enjoy it. Little and often is a good motto for the pig feeder. The more closely we adhere to nature, the more successful shall we be. It is to this, perhaps, that exercise is so specially necessary for pigs which are being prepared for the show yard. It is impossible to render a pig perfectly fit for exhibition at a show, and more particularly at several successive shows, without plenty of exercise. Each morning and evening a walk of a distance varying with the ages, etc., of the pigs is desirable. Another point to which some professional pigmen give great prominence is the regular dosing of their charges with secret medicines. This is not only unnecessary, but may with breeding animals prove harmful. A sound healthy pig seldom requires medicine if it is properly fed and exercised. It is the over feeding or intense desire of the pigman which in the majority of cases renders medicine necessary.

A word of warning against this haste to get the pig into show condition. This last can only be a work of time, and the commencement of the process must be in the early stages of the life of the pig and be steadily continued until within a few days of the show. This slight reduction of the food may be necessary in the summer when the heat is great and the pigs become restless when travelling boxed up in a crate in an enclosed truck. Many of the pigs lost in travelling to or from the shows or soon after arriving at the shows, have been fed just prior to being loaded up, because of the difficulty in feeding them when on the journey. This is an entire mistake; not only should the pigs not be fed, but prior to being put into the crates they should be given just so much exercise as will cause them to evacuate the bowels, or the bladder. Care in this respect and non-exposure to the rays of the sun may not in every case prevent trouble, but it will most certainly reduce to a minimum the chance of it. Should a pig suffer from the heat, cold water should be applied to the head by means of a sponge or a cloth, and should some of the water percolate into the mouth of the pig so much the better.

CHAPTER XIV
PRESENT AND FUTURE PIG-KEEPING

As it is impossible to foretell the effect which the present disastrous war will have upon the pig-breeding industry, we have deemed it expedient to refer as briefly as possible to the present conditions of feeding, etc., which may or may not prove to be of a temporary character or which may become permanent in a more or less modified manner.

One of the results of the scarcity and high market value of the different articles which have been commonly used in the feeding of pigs is drawing greatly increased attention to the original conditions under which pigs were kept, i.e. when they were in a wild state or when they were allowed their partial freedom for the purpose of getting their own living to a greater or lesser extent.

We are aware that a claim has been made by an enthusiastic convert to pig-keeping that in allowing his pigs their liberty to roam over grass fields and in woods he is practising quite a novel course of procedure, but the old hands merely smile and admire the enthusiasm which is more nearly allied with youth than old age. The practice may not have been generally followed of late years, but in the middle of the last century it was to the writer's knowledge common in certain of the Eastern Counties, particularly in Suffolk and portions of Essex and Cambridgeshire, where a considerable acreage of grass and especially clovers was grazed by pigs, having a greater or lesser quantity of other food as the pigs were intended for breeding or fattening purposes.

Generally speaking, some shelter of a temporary character was provided failing that furnished by trees, and straw stacks, etc., but our American cousins have gone one better in that they have introduced small movable houses which can be transported on wheels and can be utilised for a sow and her pigs, or for a number of stores. In the former course, an enclosure sufficiently large for the sow to graze therein is fenced in so that each sow can be kept separate until the pigs are old enough to prevent others from robbing them of their birthright. The chief difficulty attending this system is not experienced in the United States to the extent it is in this country, since the general custom there is to allow each sow to farrow a litter of pigs in the spring and then to fatten off both sow and pigs, save those reserved for breeding purposes next year. This plan, which appears to be wasteful, also handicaps the owner who desires to improve his pig stock, since an opportunity is denied him of discovering the best of his sows and so reserving them and their produce to form the nucleus of a really good herd. The system is not an entirely new one, as it is practised to a great extent in some parts of Lincolnshire and other Northern counties, where there is not the excuse made for it in the States that it avoids the trouble and risk from the intense cold attending the farrowing of sows in the winter.

It may be that the severity of our winters is not usually great, but the cold, damp and foggy weather commonly experienced in England during the last two or three months of the year render it necessary to warmly house young pigs, and this is difficult in wooden houses of limited size, as these become hot and stuffy when entirely closed, or damp and cold when unclosed. Again, the labour attending the feeding of a large herd housed in isolated sties must be very considerable. Another objection raised against this farrowing of sows in these small houses is that it is difficult if not impossible at night to have the pigman in attendance on the sow, further, that it is not advisable to allow the young pigs to roam about with their dam until they are some weeks old, as when the weather is cold or wet they become chilled and when the sun is hot they quickly become blistered, both conditions materially interfering with their well doing.

It is claimed that both sow and pigs are able to secure a large portion of their living, but a sow with a good litter of pigs on her requires a considerable amount of food in addition to grass to enable her to do justice to her young, whilst the younger pigs are unable to digest any quantity of grass until they are some weeks old; besides this, the youngsters thrive much better during their early life when confined in quarters than when trailing about after the sow. Could we ensure fairly fine weather, and an absence of cold nights and very changeable weather, the little pigs' chances of thriving under outdoor conditions would be considerably enhanced.

Another alleged new discovery is the permitting of pigs to roam at large in woods and plantations, wooden huts or open sheds being provided as shelter. By this plan a considerable amount of pig food is obtained where the trees are not closely planted, so that grass grows freely, or, in the autumn, in the woods in which oaks, beech, hazel, or sweet chestnut form a portion of the trees. In such woods strong store pigs are able to obtain the major portion of their food, but where the trees are of a kind which does not produce nuts or are closely planted, the additional food must be more plentiful, whilst the manurial value of the food is wasted to a considerable extent.

Perhaps the most profitable form of outdoor pig-keeping is that of running the pigs in orchards. This system has many advantages, the pigs are able to live without much additional food for some months in the year, they consume the insect-affected fallen fruit, and so act as insecticides. The pigs also usually leave their droppings under the trees, which are thus benefited therefrom, and especially is this the case where the pigs are being fattened or fed on food which enables them to make flesh. Many years since, the writer had several customers for breeding pigs who kept numbers of pigs in their orchards. One fruit grower in Kent declared that fattening pigs in his orchard resulted in the growing of heavier crops of cherries of larger size, better colour, and finer flavour. Another whose apple orchard was disappointing followed my advice to fatten pigs in it, declared that the quantity of apples grown was much greater, whilst both the size and quality of these were infinitely better.

Under the modern system of pig-keeping it is more profitable to give some additional and concentrated food to the pigs having their liberty, it is therefore wise to secure the full benefit arising from the richer living by running the pigs where the manure can be utilised, and no better place than an orchard can be found, since shelter from sun and wind is furnished by the fruit trees, and the pigs deposit their urine and excrement in exactly the place where it is most urgently required.

The practice of growing considerable areas of rape or cole seed, artichokes, peas of various kinds, beans, etc., to be fed off by pigs is not followed extensively in this country, although pig-keepers in the United States, Canada, Germany, Denmark, etc., have a partiality to it, since it is declared to save labour and to bring the land into a good manurial condition for the growth of corn crops; still some few of our more advanced farmers have been in the habit of grazing off lucerne, clovers, and even permanent and temporary grasses by the aid of pigs, which have also received in addition a varying amount of roots, corn, or meal. It is asserted, and evidence is available to prove the truth of the statement, that land can be economically and quickly and vastly improved by following the system referred to above. The scarcity and high market value of miller's offals and of meals such as used in the past to be utilised to a great extent in the feeding of pigs, has caused pig-keepers to seek for other foods to take their place. The residuum from the crushing of palm nuts, cocoa-nuts, and ground nuts has been most successfully used in connection with various forms of vegetable food; even sows have reared good litters of pigs on about 2 lbs. of a mixture of the meals remaining from the extraction of the oil from the nuts mentioned, with the addition of some form of vegetable food. This last has comprised cooked potatoes, raw artichokes, mangolds, kohl rabi, swedes, cabbages, etc., during the winter months, and grass, lucerne, clover, vetches, cole seed, etc., during the summer months. Fattening pigs will require a somewhat larger quantity of concentrated food and a reduced amount of vegetable food. The pre-war belief that sharps or middlings only was the most suitable food for sows with litters and for newly weaned pigs has been somewhat modified. Whether or not the quality and price of middlings will be restored after the war and thus its use become general as of old, must be left, but it is probable that in the future a certain proportion of the meals referred to will continue to be used for both breeding and fattening pigs.

CHAPTER XV
PIG-FATTENING

If there be one task which is considered to be within the capacity of any individual, it is that of feeding a pig. In the good old times, the one thing needful was a good supply of barley meal, as much of this as the pig could possibly eat was placed into its trough each day until the pig was thought to be fat enough for slaughter. This was a very simple and at the same time a very costly process and was looked upon as the second of the two chief acts in the life of a pig. The first consisted of building up a frame on which fat could be stored. Just why these two processes were not combined has never been fully explained. One excuse made for this uneconomical process is that our forbears must have considered that there must be two distinct periods in the life of any animal intended for the food of man, that in which the structure was erected, and that in which the building was completely furnished with the material—flesh—in a state which most nearly satisfied the requirements or fancies of humanity. The system of first growing the frame and then packing it with flesh was not alone followed by the owners of pigs, as it was also adopted with cattle, which in the good old times passed three or four years in a state of semi-starvation ere they were placed on our best pastures to produce beef. Sheep, again, spent two or three years in building up their frames and in the production of a limited quantity of wool of inferior quality and strength, before they were considered in a fit state to make mutton economically. Another excuse which could have been offered by our forbears, but which is not now available, is that the cattle, sheep, and pigs of former times required age before it was possible to render them sufficiently fat for slaughter.

The very great improvement which has taken place during the past half century, in wellnigh every breed of pig, has deprived our present day pig-breeders of such an excuse, yet they persist in far too many instances in following the old-fashioned and uneconomical system of first growing the pig and then fatting it, whereas it is not only possible but infinitely more profitable to combine the two operations. So many persons have been in the habit of looking upon the pig as a mere scavenger or an animal to put out of sight certain articles containing a small amount of nutriment which, undisposed of, would become a nuisance or offensive to one or other of our organs. Even the pig itself has been considered by many farmers, especially those termed gentlemen farmers, as a necessary nuisance, whereas the pig is really a machine for the conversion of farm produce into meat, and like all machines, its output will depend entirely on the quantity and quality of the raw material, and the manner in which it is supplied. If the raw material be of inferior quality and supplied irregularly, or in too limited quantities, the article manufactured will be more costly and of an inferior quality. An extension in the time of manufacture means increased cost for fuel and for labour in attendance on the machinery. A certain quantity of fuel is being continually used in the furnace whether the engine is running at full power or at half power. It is exactly the same with the meat making machine, the pig every day of its existence consumes a certain quantity of food for which it gives one return only, its life. It has been conclusively proved that each pig weighing 100 lbs. requires 2 lbs. of food daily to enable it to sustain life, i.e. to replace loss of tissue, to provide heat, progression, etc., so that if a pig lives six months longer than is actually necessary to enable it to manufacture a certain weight of meat, it will have eaten to waste over 3 cwt. of good food.

A pig is like unto any other machine, it will produce the manufactured article most cheaply when it is fully supplied with the most suitable raw material. There is not the slightest doubt that the least costly pork is that which is produced by the pig which spends its whole time in the object of its existence, the manufacture of pork.

There is a further point of great importance. Wellnigh all those materials which are used in the feeding of pigs contain the constituents necessary for the building up of the frame and for the accumulation of fat or, as it is commonly termed, the making of meat. Evidently nature intended that the two operations should be carried on simultaneously. Those constituents which are required in the building up of the frame cannot be entirely used in the formation of fat, consequently if the frame is first built up and then an attempt is made to lay on flesh, a considerable portion of the building up constituents are simply wasted, since the pig has no need for them and cannot make complete use of them. They simply pass through the pig after taxing it to digest them, and are wasted.

Opinions and practices with regard to pig fatting have changed very much during the past half century, and especially so since the full effect of the fearful war has been felt. Rather before the first-mentioned period, the late Sir John Lawes, whose researches and experiments have been of lasting benefit to agriculturists, undertook to carry out experiments in connection with pig-breeding, and the result which appears to have impressed itself most upon the writers of the day was that barley meal was the best single food for the fatting of pigs. At the time named, our importations of maize and of many other materials now used in stock and especially pig-breeding were not of anything the magnitude of the period prior to the war, still, it seems to be strange to the enlightened pig-breeder of to-day that more serious endeavours should not have been made to determine the value of a mixed diet for pigs, since this had been proved to be beneficial and necessary in the case of human beings whose organs are so very similar to that of the despised pig.

Fortunately for us, and indeed for the stock-keepers in all parts of the world, experiments in the feeding of stock have been carried out in various countries, Denmark, Sweden, the United States, Canada, Germany, and indeed in nearly all countries, save to any great extent in England. In connection with pigs, the practices of a few of our more intelligent pig-keepers have been confirmed. Amongst these ideas which the old-fashioned ones looked upon as fads, was that of feeding pigs of all ages and especially fatting pigs on a certain proportion of vegetable food. Experiments have conclusively proved that the substitution of some 10 per cent of vegetable matter in place of an equal amount of meal or concentrated food, does not result in the slightest reduction in the live weight gain of the fatting pig, and further that the old idea that a limited quantity of vegetable food fed to a fatting pig tended to render the pork soft and to waste in the cooking was not founded on fact. Another fact which has evolved from these experiments is that the pig will make far greater progress on an equal amount of a mixture of foods than if fed solely on one food. This was clearly proved in many experiments as at the Wisconsin Agricultural Station, where one lot of pigs was fed on middlings alone, a second lot on corn meal alone, and a third lot on a mixture of corn meal and middlings. To make an increase of 100 lbs. in their live weight, the pigs in Lot 1 ate 522 lbs. of middlings, those in Lot 2 ate 537 lbs. of corn meal to make an equal increase in weight, whilst Lot 3, which were fed on a mixture of corn meal and middlings, required only 439 lbs., or a saving of one-fifth in the weight of food. In experiments with regard to the food value of corn meal and middlings carried out at the Missouri College, middlings also gave the best returns, but unfortunately the ages of the pigs used in the trials are omitted. This is important as middlings are considered to be of more value in the feeding of young than of older pigs, whilst the reverse holds good of corn or maize meal. Other trials were carried out at Wisconsin with the use of wheat meal alone as compared with a mixture of half wheat and half corn meal. In these the average quantity of wheat meal required for 100 lbs. increased live weight was 500 lbs., whilst only 485 lbs. of the mixture of wheat and corn meals was needed to obtain an equal increase or a saving of some 5 per cent was obtained by mixing the meals.

In the good old times it was considered to be the height of folly to make a change in the food on which the pigs were being fattened, yet our forbears would have been horrified had they been informed that it was imperative that they themselves should have no variety of food, that day after day the food at their various meals should be exactly similar; surely what is good for one animal should be good for another animal whose organs are of an exactly similar character. There is not the slightest doubt that advantage is derived from the variation in the food on which the pigs are being fattened. By this, it is not intended to suggest that a complete change of food should be made at stated times in the fatting pigs' food, as this would certainly result in a loss of time and food, but that a slight variation in the proportions of the different kinds of food is beneficial, or in the case where several different kinds of food are being fed as a mixture, another kind of food may be substituted so that the change made secures a variation which has the effect of whetting or enticing the appetite. A long continuance of the same kind of food has the effect of dulling the appetite. In addition to this, it is considered that a variation in the food tends to stimulate the digestive organs.

It is a mistake to allow too long a time to pass between feeding times; the pig is not endowed by nature with a capacious paunch which enables it to stow away a large quantity of food. Even the old system of feeding twice a day might be improved upon, and the fatting pig fed three times per day would make greater thrift, even should the actual daily quantity of food be not increased.

Again, so many persons are apt to give to the fatting pig a greater quantity of food than it requires or can eat with comfort to itself at one meal. Should this be pointed out to them, their usual reply would be that what the pig did not eat for their breakfast would be there in readiness for the evening meal unless they ate it during the day, as they frequently would do. This sounds plausible until the argument be closely examined. What would the pigman think if he were treated in a similar manner and an excessive quantity of food placed on his plate, and then at the next meals the stale food be again placed before him until it was finished? This certainly would not increase his appetite nor aid his digestion. Yet the most successful pigman is he who succeeds in so feeding his charges that they daily eat and thoroughly digest the greatest amount of food possible. In pig fattening, as in many other things, time is money. Further it is just as much a mistake for fatting pigs as for human beings to be continually eating, or at irregular intervals, small quantities of food. The two most certain indications that a lot of fatting pigs are thriving is to find that they are asleep and that their feeding troughs are empty. When pigs are fed a greater quantity of food than they can eat at once they will be frequently getting up to eat a little more of the surplus, and each time they rise from their bed they will evacuate their bowels, and in most cases before the major portion of the nutriment has been extracted.

Still another of the fallacies of our forbears was that the fatting pig made the greatest increase from a given quantity of food when it was at least approaching maturity and ripeness, or complete fatness. It was useless to argue with them, since anyone could see that it was so. If you suggested the use of the scales, the idea was scouted, since a person of any experience in pig fatting must be able to notice the increase in bulk of the pig. It is true that apparently the pig would be making a greater increase of weight as it approached the completion of its fatting process, since the addition to its weight and bulk would be almost entirely composed of fat which could only be deposited on the outside of the carcase. All the vacant space in the interior of the pig would have been occupied, the pig would have stored fat away in its muscles, around its kidneys, on its stomach, its bowels, and wherever it was possible to stow it away, but these additions to the weight of the carcase which had been proceeding in the early stages of the fatting could not be observed, nevertheless they were proceeding, and in this was the pig enabled in its early stage of fatting to make a profitable return for the food consumed.

Fortunately we are not left on this point to mere conjecture; many experiments have clearly proved that in the early stages of the life of a pig it is enabled to manufacture pork at a far less cost than in its later stages of life. The young pig also possesses over its older companion the great advantage of being able to eat and utilise a greater quantity of food in proportion to its weight or, in other words, the young pig can convert a greater quantity of raw material into the manufactured article than the more matured pig, in proportion to the amount of food required for the mere upkeep of the machinery. Experiments which most clearly prove this have been duplicated in Denmark, in the United States, etc. At Copenhagen nearly seventy different experiments were carried out with pigs of varying weights, with the result that pigs weighing about 275 lbs. live weight were found to require nearly twice as much food to make an increase in their live weight as did pigs weighing from 35 to 75 lbs. That this was not an exceptional case is clearly proved by the fact that the increase in the amount of food required to enable them to make an increase in their live weight was gradual, and shown in every stage; thus pigs of from 35 to 75 lbs. consumed 376 lbs. of food for each 100 lbs. increase; pigs of 75 to 115 lbs., 435 lbs.; pigs of 115 to 155 lbs., 466 lbs.; pigs of 155 lbs. to 195 lbs., 513 lbs.; pigs of 195 lbs. to 235 lbs., 540 lbs.; pigs of 235 lbs. to 275 lbs., 614 lbs.; and pigs of 275 lbs. to 315 lbs., 639 lbs.

Even if this series of experiments stood alone they surely would prove most conclusively that the common belief in old and nearly fat pigs giving the best return from the food consumed is founded on fiction, but similar tests were made at many of the American Experiment Stations, these tests together numbering some hundred. The results are given in tabulated form in Henry's Feeds and Feeding, where the various points are so clearly brought out that we have taken the liberty of lifting the whole of the notes relating to "weight, gain, and feed consumed" by pigs. "At many of our stations, records of weights and gains of pigs and feed consumed by them have been so reported as to permit of studies concerning the influence of increased size and weight of the animal on the consumption of food.

"All of the available data from trials of this character conducted in this country" (the United States) "up to the time of going to press, enter into the composition of the table given below. In compiling this table, six pounds of skim milk or twelve pounds of whey are calculated as equal to one pound of grain, according to the Danish valuation of these articles. For convenience of study, the data are presented for each period covering fifty pounds of growth, the actual average weight of the pigs, however, being given for each division.

DATA RELATIVE TO FEED, WEIGHT, AND GAIN OF PIGS—MANY AMERICAN STATIONS

"In the above table the large number of trials reported for pigs weighing up to 350 lbs. each furnishes reliable data. After this point is reached the number of animals is too small to give reliable averages. The heavy weight hogs reported in the last three lines of the table were fed by the writer (Professor Henry). They were mature specimens, with large frames and in lean flesh when feeding began, having been summered on pasture without grain. The figures are introduced to show what may be accomplished with mature hogs when they are in thin flesh at the beginning of fattening.

"We learn from the main portion of the table that from 105 to 435 pigs were employed in calculating each line of data. The number of trials furnishing the data varied from 19 to 119, and were conducted by from 3 to 13 experiment stations.

"Amount of food consumed daily by the pig. The sixth column of the table shows the average amount of feed consumed daily by pigs of different weights. From it we learn that pigs weighing less than 50 lbs. each, averaging 38 lbs., consumed on the average 2.23 lbs. of grain or grain equivalent, daily. As the animal increased in weight there was a gradual increase in the amount of food consumed, until we find the 450 lbs. hog eating 10 lbs. of grain daily, or more than four times as much as the 50 lbs. pig.

"Feed per 100 lbs. live weight: In the seventh column it is shown that pigs weighing 38 lbs. consumed 5.95 lbs. of feed for each 100 lbs. of live weight. This is about 6 per cent of their live weight. As the pigs grew larger they consumed less feed for 100 lbs. of live weight, until with the heaviest hogs the feed consumed was little more than 2 per cent of their live weight. Here was a decrease of about two-thirds in the feed consumption per 100 lbs. between early weight and maturity.

"Average daily gain: In the next column are presented data concerning the daily gain of the pig. It is shown that the 38 lb. pig gained .76 of a lb., or 2 per cent of its own weight daily. As it increased in size the pig made larger daily gains, the maximum being reached with those weighing 271 lbs., which made a daily gain of 1.46 lb. With large thin hogs the gain reached 1.98 lb., or practically 2 lbs. per day, but these animals, because of their mature frames and thin flesh, were fed under exceptional circumstances.

"Feed for 100 lbs. of gain: The last column is of interest to all, especially the practical feeder, for it teaches a most interesting and important lesson concerning the feed requirements of pigs. Those which average 38 lbs. each made 100 lbs. of gain from 293 lbs. of feed. This exceedingly small allowance of feed for gain was probably due in part to the fact that the young pigs used in these trials received much milk, which was practically all digestible, the other feed being also more highly digestible than that usually supplied older animals. With pigs weighing 78 lbs., 400 lbs. of feed were required for 100 lbs. of gain. There was a gradual increase of feed requirements for 100 lbs. of gain, until the hog weighing 320 lbs. required 525 lbs. for each 100 lbs. of gain. This is 135 lbs. or 33 per cent more feed than was required by the 78 lbs. pig."

These tables prove most conclusively that the idea which is almost universally prevalent that the fatting pig gives the greatest increase for the food which it consumes when it becomes matured and nearly fat is an entirely mistaken one, and that the young and growing pig, if well kept, not only eats more in proportion to its weight, but gives a better return for the food it consumes, besides requiring a smaller amount of food to keep life within itself, and to replace the certain loss sustained by movement, etc. There is still another point on which the young pig scores: its carcase realises a higher price per lb. on a majority of the markets. The fatting pig which pays best is one which has a short life and a merry one, never having to seek or wait for its food.

Amongst the many other questions which have been compelled attention owing to the shortage and the high value of pig food, is that of the advisability or the reverse of cooking the food given to pigs. When the practice of showing stock became fashionable every possible means of forcing the exhibits was practised, since early maturity was of so great importance, especially in the classes for the younger animals. The cooking of the stronger kinds of food such as old beans for horses had been found beneficial, as the risk of fever in the feet and other ailments had been greatly reduced by this practice. The stock man naturally concluded that the cooking or steaming of beans having proved to be of advantage, similar good results would follow the steaming of the other kinds of food. In this fanciful theory they would have been able to find ample support in many of the books on stock feeding which were published in the first half of the last century and even later. Like many other novelties, the steaming or boiling of almost all kinds of food for animals was followed in the establishments of well-to-do persons where cost was studied less than success in the show yards. Then, as now, the Germans took little for granted, they proceeded to test the much belauded new plan by attempting to discover the fact as to whether steaming rendered hay more digestible when fed to cattle, with the result that it was clearly proved that when the hay was fed dry 46 per cent of the protein was digested by the cattle while only 30 per cent was digested from the steamed hay. But as our present business is with pig-feeding, we will confine our remarks to the results of experiments carried out to test the effects of cooking the food of pigs. Perhaps the best summary of these is to be found in the most valuable work, Feeds and Feeding, by Professor Henry, who wrote Experiments with Cooked Feed for Pigs.

These have been so numerous that all cannot be here presented. Those given are selected because they are strictly representative, covering a wide range of country foods and conditions.

"At the Kansas Agricultural College, Shelton fed one lot of five pigs on cooked shelled corn, while a second lot of four, similar in all respects, was given uncooked shelled corn, the trial lasting ninety days. In cooking, the corn was placed in a barrel and water poured over it; into this mass a pipe carried steam, at a pressure ranging from 30 to 60 lbs. The kernels were cooked until they were sufficiently soft to be easily mashed between the thumb and finger.

"At the Iowa Agricultural College, Stalker conducted trials for 120 days in summer with cooked and uncooked shelled corn fed to Berkshire pigs.

"At the Dominion (Canada) Station, Robertson fed grade Chester Whites, a mixture of ground peas, barley, and rye, the trials beginning in December and lasting 141 days.

"At the Ohio Station, Devol fed pure bred Poland Chinas and Berkshires for 112 days in winter. One lot of three pigs received the meal cooked, while to the second lot it was given dry and uncooked.

"At the Wisconsin Station, the writer (Henry) has conducted many trials with cooked and uncooked feed for pigs. Only the later ones are here reported. These trials lasted from 56 to 84 days each, the kinds of feed experimented being given in the table.

"The five trials reported from the Wisconsin Station, as will be seen by consulting the table, are slightly in favour of cooked food, the difference being very small, however. These are the only feeding trials reported from any experiment station, so far as known to the writer, where the results are favourable to cooking. Ten other trials by the writer with cooked and uncooked feed for swine all gave results unfavourable to cooking these, and a number of trials at other stations with cooked and uncooked feed for swine are not included for want of space."

A table showing the stations at which the various experiments were carried out, the numbers and weights of the pigs, the varieties of foods, the duration of the different trials, the daily gain, the weights of cooked and uncooked food consumed, the manner of cooking, the total increases in weight and the quantities of cooked and uncooked food required for increases of 100 lbs. in the live weights of the pigs are given. Professor Henry sums these up and writes: "Including all the trials then, so far as is known, that have been favourable to cooking feed and omitting many for lack of space, that are unfavourable to that operation, the average shows that 476 lbs. of uncooked meal or grain were required for 100 lbs. of gain with pigs, while after it was cooked 505 lbs. were required. This shows a loss of 6 per cent of the feeding value of these substances through cooking."

Some thirty-five years since the present writer made some small experiments in the feeding of cooked and uncooked whole maize; in each case it was found that the pigs ate a greater quantity of uncooked than cooked maize, and made a greater proportionate increase in weight from the food consumed. Only one opinion appears to be possible, and this is that the cooking of food for pigs, save potatoes, entails a loss of time, an increase in cost, and a reduced return.

CHAPTER XVI
A PIG CALENDAR

The pig-keeper, like the gardener, seldom has to seek for employment, indeed his work may be said to be only occasionally completed. There are always many little odd jobs to do, which if neglected may result in loss, or a greatly increased amount of work at some later period. The old proverb "A stitch in time saves nine" is equally as true in connection with pig keeping as with any other form of work.

In years gone by the month of January was considered to be quite a slack time for pig-keepers, the sows and the store pigs usually found the greater part of their living in the yards where the cattle were fed on the straw which was continually being placed in the cribs as the old-man-of-the-farm threshed the corn out of it with his flail. Many of the cribs had slatted bottoms so that any kernels of corn which were left in the straw would drop through and be picked up by the pigs which found their way under the cribs. In most of the old-fashioned large yards a corner would be railed off in which the pigs would be given a few turnips, swedes, or small potatoes, and occasionally a handful or two of beans or even a sheaf of beans. Those fatting pigs which had not already been converted into bacon for consumption in the farm-house were fed mainly on meal ground at the local wind or water mill from the tail corn grown by the farmer. At the present time the most up-to-date pig-keepers so arrange that many of the older sows farrow during this month of January so that the sows have their second litter of the year late in the month of June or early in July in order that both litters of pigs obtain the greatest amount of benefit from the growing and hot season, since pigs thrive best when the days are lengthening and when the sun shines.

Of late years we appear to have had somewhat severe weather in January. This has rendered it the more necessary that care should be taken in providing water and wind-tight sties, in which the sows farrow. Warmth with free ventilation is needed. The latter is particularly necessary after the pigs are a few days old, as these do not suffer so much from cold as they do from damp and draughts. Of course whilst the sow is farrowing warmth is imperative, as the moist little pigs when first ejected very quickly become chilled in severe frost, unless they are promptly wiped with a dry cloth, allowed a draught or two of new milk from the sow, and then placed in a box or hamper three parts filled with dry wheat straw. When once the pigs become thoroughly dry the cold does not affect them very much, providing that the sow furnishes her family with a full supply of milk. The cost of heating a little water so that the sow and also the young pigs as soon as they begin to eat may have warmed food, will be slight, as there is nearly always a fire required in cottage and farm-house during the cold weather. Warm food makes a vast difference in the thrift of pigs, especially of young ones. Very slight observation will reveal the marked difference in the comfort of a pig which has had a meal of warm or of cold food. In the former case the pig will return to its nest and is soon lost in sleep, whilst the poor beggar which has had its breakfast on cold and occasionally frozen food will be the picture of misery and shaking with cold, much of its natural heat produced from its last meal being required to warm up the food ere its digestive organs can commence work. Coal and wood are at all times less expensive to warm up food than the animal fat which is burned in nature's lamp.

Provision should have been made for the supply of some kind of vegetable food which pigs require, particularly when in confinement. Kohl rabi, swedes and cabbages, of which the first named is the best, are all suitable, but the most nourishing are artichokes, which like the three former should be fed raw, and potatoes which should be cooked ere they are fed to the pigs. The difference in the feeding value between cooked and uncooked potatoes is great. It is scarcely necessary to point out that all vegetable food fed to pigs should have been protected from frost.

The operations connected with pig-keeping are very similar in February to those of the preceding month. Towards the end of the month kohl rabis will have lost much of their feeding value. On sunny days a run out for a few minutes will be of great benefit to the young pigs over a month old; as soon as they cease to gallop about they should be shut up again, as if allowed to lie down they may contract a chill which might result in "cramp" or rheumatism. Sows with litters two or three weeks old should be allowed out of the sty each morning and afternoon for a short time.

The month of March brings with it an extra amount of work for the pig-keeper, who will now think of selling the pigs born early in January unless he purposes to keep them on and have them ready for sale as fat pigs in harvest time, when there is always a good demand for medium sized fat pigs. Anyway the sow pigs intended for breeding will have been picked out and earmarked, this last should not be neglected after the others have been spayed.

This last operation has of late years been much neglected; this is a great mistake, as experiments have clearly proved that on an average sow pigs which have been spayed will make an equal gain in live weight on 5 per cent less food than will an unspayed sow pig, when both have become some five or six months old, and the periods of œstrum have commenced.

The sows which farrowed in January should now be weaned from their pigs, and should be ready to be mated within a few days. The sows should be carefully watched for the signs of heat or restlessness. Some sows give little indication of this unrest, which is almost certain to appear within four or five days providing the sow is in a healthy and vigorous condition. To miss the sow means a loss of three weeks of most valuable time, besides the risk of trouble in getting the sow to conceive after she had been baulked. With the passing of the month swedes and artichokes will have lost much of their nourishment; mangolds can now take their place. It is a good plan to expose the mangolds to the air for a few days prior to feeding them to the pigs; this exposure hastens their ripening and reduces the proportion of water. Of course care must be taken to prevent them becoming frozen, as in March this might be the case.

In the Southern counties tares, lucerne, and grass are sufficiently forward towards the end of April to be cut and fed to the pigs which are confined in the buildings. The pigs both fat and store will fully repay the cost of labour in the cutting and carting of these vegetable foods. Brood sows both in pig and with litters dependent on them, should be allowed their liberty in the grass fields. This will both greatly reduce the cost of keep and tend to their thrift and well doing. Young pigs over a month old should have a run out both morning and afternoon. Newly weaned pigs which have been well done are always in keen request in the months of April and May at prices higher than in any other portion of the year, owing to the demand from the cheese-makers who have a superabundance of whey, of which 12 lbs. when fed in proper combination is considered to be equal in value to 1 lb. of meal. Unfortunately, so many dairymen do not study the requirements of the pig, and imagine that it will give a good return from an excess of liquid in the form of whey. Without some concentrated food the pig will not thrive on whey. Numbers of young pigs are also required in those districts where butter-making is carried on to consume the butter milk, and in ordinary times much of the separated or skim milk. In the feeding of this again the results are not so good as they should be owing to neglect. Both foods have been rendered unbalanced owing to the extraction of the butter fat, so that although new milk may be fed alone, the others require additional food which should contain some oil or fat to be fed with them, or they cause indigestion and want of thrift, particularly in young and immature pigs.

The roots of all kinds, save potatoes and mangolds, have ceased to be of much value before April ends, vetches and lucerne will prove to be the best of substitutes. Spring cabbages are generally of more value for human consumption than can be obtained from their use as pig food. If there be any grass land available the in-pig sows and the stores, should there be such, should now find the major portion of their food out of doors.

As a rule far too little attention is paid to the growth of lucerne in this country. It is undoubtedly one of the most nutritive of our vegetable crops. It also produces a large weight of food extending over several months, and continues fruitful for many years providing attention is paid to the keeping it free from grasses. It has the additional advantage of furnishing a full supply of food when the weather is so dry that grass and some other foods produce little. It is true that in the initial stage it requires time and care, but the results from it amply repay both. One of the best seasons for sowing it is the month of May. The operation is simple, the land having been cleared the seed is sown in drills about 1 ft. apart, the quantity of seed required being at the rate of 20 lbs. per acre, say 2 oz. per pole or a drill 35 yards long. As soon as the plants are high enough the land should be hand hoed, and if kept free of weeds a light crop can generally be cut from it towards the end of August. In the following years it will produce at least three cuttings annually.

Some persons are of opinion that as lucerne is such a deep-rooted plant manure is unnecessary. It is true that the roots penetrate several feet into the soil, still an application of short manure or rotted vegetable matter applied each autumn will give a good return.

The chief point in the use of lucerne for pigs and in the production of a maximum crop is to cut it when young. The pigs will thrive on it far better in this state than when the stalks become hard and sticky. In the latter stage it is likely to cause constipation. It is best not to graze it with either horses, cattle, or pigs, but benefit to it results from folding it in the autumn with ewes or other sheep which find most of their other food on the stubbles, commons, heaths, etc.

All the sows and the yelts intended for breeding should now spend their whole time out of doors. It might be noted that lucerne will grow on almost any kind of land providing it is well drained—stagnant water destroys it.

The duties of the pig-keeper are very similar in the month of June to those of the previous month. Prior to the outbreak of war it was becoming general amongst the most practical pigmen to continue to fatten pigs all the year round. The old-fashioned idea that pork was not a suitable food during any of the months in which there was not the letter "r" had become exploded. Not only did the bacon curers require a supply of fat pigs weighing from 200 to 220 lbs. alive, but there was a good demand from the butchers for small fat pigs weighing from 80 to 140 lbs. alive.

It must not be forgotten that a smaller quantity of food is required to produce a pound of pork during the summer than during the winter months. This has been clearly proved in many experiments. The difference varies according to the temperature. In the very cold weather experienced in some portions of the United States it was found that some pigs actually made no increase in weight when well fed, the whole of the nutriment having to be utilised in keeping up the bodily warmth of the pigs.

The months of July and August see little change in the duties of the attendant on pigs. The old-fashioned plan of running the pigs on the corn stubbles has almost gone out of fashion. The improved system of harvesting the crops leaves less corn on the land, whilst the cost of labour in keeping the pigs is almost prohibitive. At one time there used to be a keen demand for young pigs in the month of August for so-called "shacking" or running on the stubbles. Experience has proved that these pigs pay less frequently under present conditions than they did under the old ones.

The scarcity of vegetable food which usually shows itself in August is now, in September, met to a considerable extent by the plan of the early digging of potatoes. Large quantities of chats, and sometimes of slightly diseased ones are now cooked and fed to the pigs with a certain proportion of meal. As a rule there is a keen demand for pork in the month of September. Towards the end of the month all pigs should be under shelter at night.

During the last three months of the year there is little variation in the management of pigs. One of the common mistakes made by farmers is to neglect their pigs in the autumn, at the very season when a little extra food is needed, and for which the pigs will give a better return than at almost any time of the year. The early portion of October is one of the best periods for mating the sows, the yelts may be left until the latter part of the month so that their pigs do not arrive until the month of February when the days are lengthening and the sun has more power. It is advisable to have many of the fat pigs ready for market ere the month of November ends, as the demand for pork is usually slack for two or three weeks prior to and after Christmas.