Fisher, as we have seen, is not of this opinion. Although he has defined the price-level as an average of particular prices[349] he none the less exalts this average into a causal entity, prior to and master of the particular prices out of which it is derived, of which it is a mere average.[350] This average, he maintains, is presupposed in the determination of all particular prices.[351] This seems to me a wholly untenable position. Ex nihilo nihil fit. There cannot be more in the average than there is in the particulars from which it is derived. In point of fact, there is necessarily vastly less. All the concrete causation is lost. The average, in itself, is nothing but a statement, a summary of results. I know nothing more metaphysical in the history of economic theory than this hypostasis of an average.[352]
I reject Fisher's notion that the average of prices is an independent entity. But I do not consider that the idea lying behind this untenable doctrine is absurd. Cost of production, supply and demand, and the other price theories do presuppose something more fundamental. They do presuppose money, and the value of money, as has been shown at length in Part I. The trouble with Fisher's notion comes in his definition of the value of money in purely relative terms as the reciprocal of the price-level, and his contention that the study of the value of money is identical with the study of price-levels.[353] Value is not a mere exchange relation.[354] Rather, every exchange relation involves two values, the values of the two objects exchanged. These two values causally determine that exchange relation. In the case of particular prices, then, we must consider not only the value of goods, but also the value of money. And the causes determining the general price-level will therefore include not alone the values of goods, but also the value of money. In the foregoing arguments by which I have shown that the price-level can vary independently of the other factors in the quantity theory scheme, I have been concerned only with changes in the values of goods, measured by a constant unit of value. If the value of money should also be varying, the concrete results on the price-level would have been different. On the face of things, there was nothing in the cases I discussed to require us to suppose that the value of money would also vary. The argument ran on the assumption of a fixed value of money. I have shown, in earlier chapters, that the assumption of a fixed value of money is fundamental to the laws of supply and demand, cost of production, and the capitalization theory. In point of fact, this assumption is rarely true—never strictly true. For causes which are in considerable degree independent of the causes governing the values of goods (as the causes governing their values are in considerable degree independent of one another), the value of money varies, now in the same direction as the values of goods in general, now in an opposite direction. Further, money itself does not escape the general laws of concatenation of values. The value of money has causes which are bound up with the values of other goods. Thus, when prices are rising and trade expanding, there is a tendency—commonly a minor tendency—for money also to rise in value, and so prices do not go quite as high as they would have gone had money remained constant. This tendency arises from the fact that there is more work for money to do in a period of active trade and rising prices. Gold also tends to rise in value in the arts, with prosperity. The reverse tendency manifests itself when prices are falling: money tends, in some measure, to fall in value with the goods,[355] and so prices do not fall as far as they would fall if money remained constant. But in general, the causes governing the values of goods, and the causes governing the value of money, are sufficiently independent to justify us in studying each separately, in abstraction, on the assumption that the other is unchanged. Hence, supply and demand, cost of production, and the other price theories, which assume a fixed value of money, are proper tools of thought for the study of the prices of goods.
The quantity theory explanation of international gold movements is as follows: if money comes into a country, it raises prices. If the price-level of the country is raised more rapidly than the price-levels of other countries are rising, then the country becomes a bad place in which to buy and a good place in which to sell; its exports fall off, its imports increase, and finally the inflow of money is checked, and, perhaps, money flows out again. The equilibrium of the gold supplies of different countries is thus dependent on the price-levels of the countries involved. The quantity of gold in a country determines its price-level, and no more gold can stay in a country, on this theory, than that amount which keeps its price-level in proper relation to the price-levels of other countries. It is not necessarily asserted that the price-levels of all countries must be equal—the facts too obviously contradict that. But when this precise statement is not made, the substitute statement of some "normal" relation between the price-level of one country and that of another becomes a very vague one, and the theory becomes pretty indefinite.
I am here concerned chiefly with one contention: the price-level, the average of prices, is not a cause of anything—not of gold movements or anything else. It is a mere summary of many concrete prices. Some of these concrete prices have highly important influence on international gold movements, tending, if they are low, to bring gold in, and if they are high, to repel gold. Others work in the opposite direction, tending if they are low to attract less gold than if they are high. Finally, among all the prices affecting international gold movements, the one which is most significant is commonly not included in the price-level at all: I refer to the "price of money," the short-time interest rate.
Let me elaborate each point. First, it is true that high prices of articles which enter easily into international trade tend to repel gold from the country—meaning by "high prices" prices that are higher than the prices of the same goods abroad. This relates, however, not to the general price-level, but only to a comparatively small set of prices. Most prices in a country are not prices of articles of international trade. High wages may, indeed, draw in immigrants. But high land rents, and high prices of land cannot bring in land. Nor do high land prices send away much gold to other countries for the purchase of land there. Indeed, within a single country, the differences in the relation between land yield and capital value of land are enormous. The following figures are taken from an article by J. E. Pope:[356] In Yazoo Co., Mississippi, farm lands are sold at $10 to $25 per acre. The average gross income per acre is $28. In Cass Co., Iowa, the land prices are from $100 to $125 per acre while the gross income amounts to only $11 per acre, if only crops and dairy products are taken into account, and to $20 if the sales of live stock are included. In Oglethorpe Co., Georgia, the average price is from $10 to $25 per acre, and the average income $10. In Paulding Co., Ohio, land is sold at from $75 to $100 per acre, and the average income per acre, including returns from live stock sold, is $15. Why should not landowners in Cass County, Iowa, sell their comparatively unproductive land, at a high price, and go, with their money, to Yazoo County, Mississippi? The answer is simply, that they would have to go with their money, and they prefer to stay at home! Absentee landlordism is not generally popular with men who are seeking paying investments. Land stands at one extreme. But then land is the very biggest item in an inventory of wealth, and, while not as land, actively bought and sold,[357] it is a big element in the values of many active securities. The principle holds in less degree of many other things, however. The securities of a local corporation, say a gas plant, find their best market at home, as a rule, unless the city be large. If they are held by foreign capitalists, they still find a very restricted market in the foreign country. Only those who have investigated at first hand will feel free in buying them—unless, indeed, they are guaranteed in some way by a big and well-known house. Prices of personal and professional services vary enormously in different sections of the same country, to say nothing of variations between different countries, and there is a very slow movement indeed toward bringing about higher salaries for rural preachers in Kansas because the salaries of London preachers have risen, or because of increased demand for preachers in Germany. Great numbers of commodities are too bulky to move far. Their prices vary with little relation to similar prices elsewhere. But the principle needs no more elaboration. If the reasoning be simply that men tend to buy where things are cheap, and to sell where things are dear, it is clear that that establishes a very loose relation indeed between the price-levels of different countries.
The second point is that some prices, by rising, actually bring in gold from abroad, while by falling they tend to release gold. I am not here referring to the case discussed in the chapter on "Supply and Demand," where a commodity, cotton, with an inelastic demand, is doubled, the doubled quantity selling for a less aggregate price, and so bringing in less money from abroad. That case would bear considerable generalization. I am referring here to the case where credit is built on the value of long time goods, as lands, or railroads. Concretely, let us suppose an increase in railroad rates allowed by the Public Service Commission of Missouri. This is, in itself a rise in prices. It will, further, on the capitalization theory, make the prices of stocks of the roads operating in the State rise also, and give a margin of additional security for bond-issues. This will make it possible for these roads to float foreign loans (or would have done so before the War), and so will tend to turn the exchanges in our favor. Gold will tend to come in, not to go out. Similarly if the prices of dairy products, or truck gardens, or orchards, or orange groves rise, leading to a rise in the prices of the lands involved, foreign capital will tend to come in as loans—i. e., the exchanges will turn more favorable to us, and the gold movement tend to turn our way. I suppose, by the way, that something of a point could be made against the Single Tax at this point: destroying land values would lessen the security which a community could offer outside lenders. The Single Tax would, thus, hamper the development of countries which need capital from outside. Men who wish to use their own capital, under their own management, might, as the Single Taxers claim, be tempted to come in, if they could be free from taxation on the capital they bring with them; but lenders, who wish a good margin of security, would find less inducement to lend.[358] This is a digression, but one feature of it is pertinent: though the foreigner does not care to migrate from his high-priced land to low-priced land elsewhere, he is often willing to trust a loan to the owner of high-priced land elsewhere. I will not venture the generalization that high-priced land necessarily attracts loans, and tends to turn the gold movements in favor of the country where prices are high. The point has been made that if lands are being exchanged frequently, the new buyer tends to exhaust his credit resources in paying for the land: i. e., puts so large a mortgage on it that he has little margin of security to offer for working capital.[359] I shall not here undertake to determine how far as a matter of fact, in different places, the one tendency outweighs the other. It is enough to point out that in many cases, where this factor is absent (as in the case of the railroads cited), rising prices attract, and do not repel, foreign gold, and that for none of these cases is the consequence of rising prices for the gold movements to be explained in the simple way that the quantity theory doctrine would require.
Finally, the international movements of gold[360] are enormously moved by the short-time rate of interest. The raising of the Bank Rate in England, supplemented, when necessary, by "borrowing from the market" by the Bank of England, as a means of making the Bank Rate effective, quickly turns the course of the exchanges. This is, as has been pointed out, a more effective device when used by the English money-market than when used by borrowing countries, since the borrower, by offering higher rates, is not always able to borrow more, whereas the lender, by demanding higher rates, is usually able to reduce his loans. But the difference is one of degree, and in point of fact a rise in the short time rates in New York City is commonly an effective means of bringing in gold from abroad. It is true that this is not the only factor. I have been at pains to point out how other factors work. I am as far as possible from denying the powerful influence of the "balance of trade" as treated by the older economists on international gold movements, when both visible and invisible items are included. But my point is, first, that these invisible items are numerous and flexible, and that a big factor in their determination is the short time rate of interest; and second, that the balance of physical items, even, depends, not on the price-level as a whole, but merely on the prices of those particular goods which enter into foreign trade. It is perfectly possible, and, indeed, is very common, for rising prices in a country to lead to expanding trade and expanding bank-credit, which causes bankers to wish to expand their reserves, which leads them to raise their rates on short time loans, which leads gold to come in from abroad. More simply still, the bankers may merely offer an attractive rate to the foreign bankers, and establish credits abroad, against which they draw "finance bills," which influence the gold movements in the desired manner.
There is a pretty obvious conflict between the quantity theory and Gresham's Law. The latter is, essentially, a "quality" theory of money. For the quantity theory, dodo-bones, or anything else will do. "It is the number, and not the weight, that is essential"![361] For Gresham's Law, the weight makes all the difference in the world, if it is a question as between full weight and light weight coins, and, in general, the value of the thing of which money is made, considered in its commodity aspect, is the starting point of that doctrine.
The quantity theorist seeks, indeed, to harmonize the two. His theory is that Gresham's Law manifests itself only when there is a redundancy of the currency due to the issue of paper money, or overvalued metal. In such a case, prices rise, he holds, and then the undervalued metal, or the metallic currency, which count no more than the paper or the overvalued metal in circulation, tend to leave the country, to another country where prices are lower, or tend to leave the money use for the arts. But the quantity theorist must maintain that it is only via increased issue, with consequent rising prices, that Gresham's Law comes into operation. If there are a million dollars of gold in circulation, and a half million of irredeemable paper is added, then only half a million of the gold (or rather a little less than half) will leave. If more than that left, prices would fall, because of the scarcity of money, and then the gold would come back, because it would be worth more in concurrent circulation with the paper than it would be worth as money abroad, or in the arts. On the quantity theory, there can be no difference in the value of gold and paper, in such a case, after enough gold has left to balance the paper that has been issued. Falling prices would prevent it.
But Gresham's Law is not held by any such fetters! And the facts of monetary history, in important cases, show Gresham's Law controlling, despite the quantity theory. I will refer briefly to two such cases.
The first centres about the suspension of specie payments by the Northern banks and the Federal Treasury on January 1, 1862. This suspension was not accompanied by any increase of money. Rather, there was a decrease,[362] shortly following, in the amount of paper money. The banks in New York, and certain other States, were bound so strictly by their charters, and by the State laws, that they dared not leave their notes unredeemed. Speculators, buying notes at a discount—for virtually all bank-notes fell to a discount—were able to present them to the banks in these States and demand gold, which led to a very profitable business. The banks protected their gold by ceasing to issue notes, or by reducing the volume of note issue. Certified checks were used to a considerable extent instead. There was certainly no increase, and probably a reduction, a considerable reduction, in the volume of bank-notes in circulation. The only other paper money in circulation was the Demand Notes of the Federal Government, which were not increased after the date of the suspension, and which were in any case small in volume as compared with the total amount of money. On the quantity theory version of Gresham's Law, there was nothing to drive gold out. Gold was not pushed out by redundant currency. Rather, it left, leaving a monetary vacuum behind. Coincidently, strangely enough, prices rose. The vacuum in the money supply was so serious, that the subsequent first issue of the Greenbacks brought a welcome relief. Throughout the whole of the first year of the suspension, the volume of money was less than it had been in the preceding year. None the less, the gold stayed out of general circulation. It did not come back from abroad. And prices rose.[363]
A similar episode, the obverse of this, occurred when the Bank of England resumed specie payments in the early '20's. Then gold came back, the currency was increased, and, coincidently, prices fell.[364]
I conclude that the conflict between Gresham's Law and the quantity theory is real and fundamental, and that in cases where different qualities of money are in concurrent circulation, the undervalued money will leave, regardless of the question of quantity.
Some writers, who would call themselves quantity theorists, would repudiate many of the doctrines for which Fisher stands, and which the historical quantity theory involves. The recognition which Fisher's book has received from quantity theorists generally, justifies me in treating his book as the "official" exposition of the modern quantity theory, and, indeed, it is easy to show that Fisher is fundamentally true to the quantity theory tradition. With many writers, the disagreement with Fisher would be a mere matter of degree; they would hold that Fisher has set forth the central principle, that his qualitative reasoning is correct, but that the relations among the factors in his equation are less rigid than he maintains. As I reject even the qualitative reasoning by which Fisher defends his doctrine, and reject even the qualitative tendency which he maintains, my criticisms will apply as well to the position of this group of writers, though I should have less practical differences with them, to the extent that they admit qualifications and exceptions to Fisher's doctrine.
There is, however, a group of writers who seem to feel that the quantity theory remains sufficiently vindicated if it can be shown that an increase in gold production tends to raise prices throughout the world, while a check on gold production tends to lower prices, and who rest their case on the necessity which bankers find of keeping reserves in some sort of relation to the expansions of bank-credit.
A view of this sort is presented by J. S. Nicholson, whose statement of the application of the quantity theory to the modern world differs almost toto coelo from his original statement in the dodo-bone illustration already discussed. Nicholson[365] declares that in our modern society "the quantity of standard money, other things remaining the same, determines the general level of prices, whilst, on the other hand, the quantity of token money is determined by the general level of prices." Nicholson's reasoning is, substantially, as follows: Although the bulk of exchanging is carried on by means of credit devices, there is still a certain part of exchanging, especially in the matter of paying balances, for which standard money only can be used. He regards the whole credit system as based on standard money, and says that for any given level of prices there is a minimum amount of standard money, absolutely demanded. If the volume of standard money falls below this minimum, the price-level will fall to such a point that the volume of standard money is again adequate. He takes, moreover, a world-wide view, declaring that it is the relation between the volume of gold money throughout the world and the demand for standard money throughout the world which determines the relative values of money and commodities. "The measure of values or the general level of prices throughout the world will be so adjusted that the metals used as currency, or as the basis of substitutes for currency, will be just sufficient for the purpose. We see then, that the value of gold is determined in precisely the same manner as that of any other commodity, according to the equation between supply and demand."
In the consideration of this doctrine, let us note several points in which it differs fundamentally from the quantity theory proper, and from the situation assumed in the dodo-bone illustration. First, it is not a quantity theory of money. Money is not regarded as a homogeneous thing, each element having the same influence on prices. Rather, token money is the child of prices. This doctrine would in no way fit in with the logic of the equation of exchange, as presented by Fisher. Further, the dodo-bone idea is entirely gone. Gold, a commodity with value in non-monetary employments, is under discussion, and it is the quantity of gold that is counted significant. This recognizes, if not the need, at least the existence, of a commodity standard. Nicholson definitely avows the necessity for the redemption of representative money, even going so far as to say that "all credit rests on a gold basis,"[366] that all instruments of exchange derive their value from the volume of standard money which supports them, and that if this basis were cut away the whole structure would fall. Nicholson recognizes, further, that gold has value independent of its use as money.[367]
In evaluating Nicholson's doctrine, I wish to point out, first, the inaccuracy of the statement that all credit rests on a gold basis. It is true that credit instruments are commonly drawn in terms of standard money, which is commonly gold. International credit instruments may even specify gold, and the same thing happens at times within a country. But commonly, in this connection, gold functions, not as the value basis lying behind the credit instrument, the existence of which justifies the extension of the credit, but rather as the standard of deferred payments, by means of which the credit instrument may be made definite. The real basis of the value of a mortgage is not a particular sum of gold, but rather the value of the farm, expressed in terms of gold. The basis of a bill of exchange is not a particular sum of gold, but rather is the value of the goods which changed hands when the bill of exchange was drawn,[368] supplemented by the other possessions of drawer, drawee, and the endorsers through whose hands it has gone. Even a note unsecured by a mortgage, or not given in payment for a particular purchase, is based, in general, on the value of the general property of the man who gives it, and on the value of his anticipated income.[369] So throughout. Credit transactions, for the most part, originate in exchanges, and carry their own basis of security in the goods and securities which change hands, not in that small fraction of the world's wealth, the stock of gold, which could, Coin Harvey asserted in the middle '90's, be put in the Chicago grain-pit! And now let me extend this idea. Although coin made from the standard of value is a great convenience, there is yet no vital need, in theory, for a single dollar, pound or franc made from the standard of value. If gold should cease entirely to be used as a medium of exchange, or in bank or government reserves, if the gold dollar should become a mere formula, so many grains of gold, without there being any coins made of it, still, so long as that number of grains had a definite, ascertainable value, commensurate with the value of some other commodity which could be used as a means of paying balances and redeeming representative money, the gold dollar could still serve as a measure and standard of values. In the situation I have assumed, silver bullion, at the market ratio, could perform all the exchange and reserve functions now performed by gold, even though not so conveniently.[370] Nicholson's description of the use of gold as a reserve, while calling attention to an important fact, has led him into the error of supposing that what may be true of gold, the medium of exchange, and reserve for credit operations is necessarily true of the standard of value as such.
Nicholson is correct, however, in looking to the standard of value for part of the explanation of changes in prices. And, since it so happens that a considerable part of the value of the standard of value comes from its employment as medium of exchange and reserve, he is correct in looking to its use as money as part of the explanation of its value. His error comes, however, in failing to see that independent changes in the values of goods may also change the price-level, and that variations in the demand for gold as a commodity may also change the value of gold, and so change the price-level.
Further, in so far as Nicholson clings to the notion of prices as depending on a mechanical equilibration of physical quantities, he is subject to the criticisms given before of the general quantity theory, and in so far as he clings to the identity of the value of gold with the reciprocal of the price-level,—the relative conception of value—he is subject to the criticisms already urged.
Again, even for a single country, the connection between volume of reserves and volume of credit is very loose and shifting. A thousand factors besides volume of standard money in a country determine the expansions and contractions of credit, and the long run average of credit. For the whole world, this connection is even looser. To assume a fixed ratio between them for the whole world, one would have to assume that all the world was simultaneously, and normally, straining its possibility of credit expansion to the utmost, so that the minimum ratio—a notion which is far from precise[371]—should also be the normal maximum, and so that no country, in expanding its credit, could draw in new reserves from other countries which had more quiescent business conditions.
Nicholson's notion of the world price-level, moreover, is subject to the criticisms I have made in the chapter on "The Quantity Theory and International Gold Movements." How can the world level have a close connection with the volume of gold, if different elements in the world price-level, the price-levels of different countries, can vary so widely and divergently as compared with one another? Even granting—which I do not grant, and which I maintain I have disproved—that the price-level in one country has a close connection with its stock of gold, would it not be true that the average price-level for the world would vary greatly, with the same world stock of gold, depending on which countries had the gold?
There is nothing in Nicholson's doctrine which seems to me to justify in any degree the doctrine that prices, in a single country, or in the world at large, show any tendency to proportional variation with the quantity of money, or with the world's stock of gold.
Is it not true, then, that there is some sort of relation between gold production and world prices? It is. Gold is like other commodities. Its value tends to sink as its quantity is increased. As its value sinks, prices tend to rise. As to the elasticity in the value-curve for gold, I think it will be best to reserve discussion till a later chapter,[372] in Part III. We shall there find reason for thinking that gold has much greater elasticity in this respect than most other commodities. That its value should fall proportionately with an increase in its quantity, I should not at all conclude. Even if its value did sink proportionately with an increase, prices would rise proportionately only if the values of goods remained unchanged.
But why do we need a quantity theory of money, with all its artificial assumptions, and its law of strict proportionality, to enable us to assert the simple fact that gold, like other commodities, has a value not independent of its quantity? What theory of money would deny it? Surely not the commodity or bullionist theory. For that theory, which seeks the explanation of the value of money in the value of gold in the arts, it would go without saying that an increase in the supply of gold for the arts would lower its value there and consequently, its value as money. Surely the theory which I shall maintain in Part III of this book will not deny that increased gold production tends to lower the value of money, and consequently to raise prices. With the "quantity theorist" who is content with this conclusion, I have no quarrel—unless he claims this obvious truth as the unique possession of the quantity theory!
In the following chapter, as in most of the preceding chapters, constructive doctrine is aimed at, even though the discussion takes, in considerable part, the form of critical analysis of opposing views. We shall seek to set forth the facts, as far as may be, regarding the relations of banking transactions to trade, the relations of clearings to amounts deposited in banks, the relation of New York City clearings to country clearings, and of New York bank transactions to bank transactions in the rest of the country. We shall seek to ascertain the extent of variability in that highly elusive magnitude, "velocity of circulation," particularly "V´." We shall indicate something of the bearing of index numbers of prices on the theory of the value of money as here presented. In reaching conclusions on these and related matters, we shall build on the investigations of Dean Kinley, on the very interesting statistical studies of Kemmerer and Fisher based on Kinley's figures, on investigations more recently made by the American Bankers' Association regarding the relation of bank transactions and bank clearings, on figures from reports by the Comptroller of the Currency, as well as on other sources. One purpose of the chapter is to criticise the statistics which purport to prove the quantity theory. The bulk of the chapter is given to this. But the work of Fisher and Kemmerer thus criticised yields rich rewards for the study. The conclusions they have drawn from their figures are, in the judgment of the writer, untenable, but the figures themselves are of immense interest and importance.
The controversy over the quantity theory has been waged with many weapons. Theory, history, and statistics—to say nothing of invective!—have been freely employed. In large measure, the statistical studies have been concerned with the direct comparison of quantity of money and prices, in their variations from year to year. One of the best of these studies, that of Professor Wesley C. Mitchell, in his History of the Greenbacks (followed by his Gold, Prices and Wages under the Greenback Standard), has, to the minds of many students, including the present writer, put it beyond the pale of controversy that the fluctuations in the gold premium, and in the level of prices, in the United States during the Greenback period, both for long periods and for daily changes, were not occasioned by changes in the quantity of money,[373] but rather, primarily, by military and political events, and other things affecting the credit of the Federal Government, together with changes affecting the values of gold and of goods. Professor Mitchell's discussion is so detailed and thorough, that what controversy remains relates, not to his facts, but rather to the possibility of interpreting those facts in harmony with the quantity theory, by repudiating the notion that the direct comparison of gold premiums or of prices with quantity of money gives a valid test.[374]
Recent defenders of the quantity theory have undertaken the examination of more complex statistics than those concerned with the simple concomitance of quantity of money and prices. Two of these studies, the first by Professor Kemmerer[375] and the second by Professor Fisher, are so elaborate, have commanded such general attention, and have been accepted by so many students as conclusive demonstrations, that I feel it proper to give them detailed examination. I do this especially because highly important facts for our construction argument emerge from this critical examination. Kemmerer's and Fisher's studies reach high-water mark in the effort to give statistical demonstrations of the quantity theory. If they are invalid, then I know no other attempts which many students would suppose to be possible substitutes. The theory involved in both these studies is clearly stated by Professor Kemmerer: "A study of this kind, to be of any value, must cover the monetary demand as well as the monetary supply. Any test of the validity of the quantity theory consisting merely of a comparison of the amount of money in circulation with the general price-level is as worthless as would be a test of the power of a locomotive by a simple reference to its speed without taking into account the load it was carrying or the grade it was moving over." This criticism of many previous studies is, in general, I think, valid, though I should except from this list such detailed studies as that of W. C. Mitchell, who takes account, as far as may be, of all the variables involved, and who considers day by day and week by week changes. I think the older studies of Tooke,[376] may also be excepted. In point of fact, if one wishes to know how much reliance may be placed in the quantity theory as a basis for prediction, when one knows that money is increasing, the simple comparison of money and prices is a fair test. If the "other things" which must be "equal" are so numerous and complex that the quantity theory cannot manifest itself in a direct comparison, much of its significance as a basis of prediction is gone.
It is perfectly true, however, that studies running through long periods, which give simply figures for general prices and figures for quantity of money, omitting volume of trade, are not very relevant either for proof or disproof.[377] And the conception underlying the studies of Kemmerer and Fisher, that not merely money and prices, but also volume of bank-credit, volume of trade, velocity of monetary circulation, and velocity of bank-credit, must be measured, undoubtedly represents a big advance in the conception of the statistical problem involved. The mere stating of the problem is an intellectual achievement of no mean order, and the ingenuity and scholarship involved in seeking data for concrete measurement of these highly elusive elements must command the admiration of every student of monetary problems. Volume of trade, velocity of money and velocity of bank-credit had been generally supposed, until these studies were undertaken, to be beyond the reach of the statistician. There can be no doubt at all that the efforts to measure them, or to measure variations in them, by Kemmerer and Fisher, have greatly advanced our general knowledge of the phenomena of money and credit.
With great admiration for the magnificence of the problem undertaken, and for the industry, ingenuity and scholarship which have been devoted to its solution, I have nevertheless reached the conclusion that the figures assigned by these writers to the magnitudes of their "equations of exchange" are, with the exceptions of the figures for money and deposits, widely at variance from the real facts in the case, and second, that if they were correct, they could in no sense be said to constitute proof of the quantity theory.
In the critical analysis which follows, chief attention will be devoted to Fisher's statistics. His is the later study, and it follows, in main outlines, the methods laid down by Kemmerer. He has employed Kemmerer's statistics in considerable part, amplifying them for later years, using some data not available when Kemmerer wrote, and undertaking a fuller solution of certain problems than Kemmerer did. I shall, however, from time to time make reference to Kemmerer's figures, and show points of difference between the two studies.
Let me first briefly state the second point of my criticism of these studies: namely, that even if the statistics are correct, they do not constitute proof of the quantity theory. The statistics purport to be concrete data filling out for different years the equation of exchange.[378] But the equation of exchange, as we have seen, does not prove the quantity theory. The quantity theory is a causal theory, and causation involves an order in time. The concrete figures for the equation do not prove that. Even Kemmerer's concluding chart on p. 148, showing a rough concomitance between "relative circulation" and general prices does not show that changes in relative circulation are causes of changes in general prices. The causation might be the reverse for anything his figures tell us. Fisher himself recognizes this, in considerable degree: "As previously remarked, to establish the equation of exchange is not completely to establish the quantity theory of money, for the equation does not reveal which factors are causes and which are effects."[379] Again: "But, to a candid mind, the quantity theory, in the sense in which we have taken it, ought to appear sufficiently secure without such checking. Its best proof must be a priori."[380]
The main criticism here, however, relates to the figures themselves, rather than to their meaning. The figures given by Professor Fisher are concrete magnitudes to fill out his equation of exchange, MV + M´V´ = PT[381] for the years since 1896. Thus, for 1909, the figures are: M = 1.61 billions; M´ = 6.68 billions; V = 21.1; V´ = 52.8; P = $1; T = 387 billions.[382]
Now in what follows, I shall challenge all these estimates except P for 1909, V for 1896 and 1909, and M and M´ for all years. The figures for M and M´, being the results of fairly simple computations based on Governmental statistics, need not be questioned. P for 1909 is arbitrarily placed at $1.00. V for 1896 and 1909, for reasons which will later appear, is better based than for other years, though Kemmerer and Fisher have differed greatly in their estimates for V, the former placing it at 47 and the latter at 18 or 20.[383] My criticisms with reference to V, however, will relate to the years other than 1909 and 1896.
The sources from which these absolute magnitudes are drawn are, primarily, two investigations by Dean David Kinley, one in 1896 and the other in 1909, in coöperation with the Comptroller of the Currency.[384] The purpose of these investigations was to ascertain the proportions of checks and money in payments in the United States. Banks of all kinds, national and State banks, trust companies, private banks, etc., were requested by the Comptroller to supply data for a given day (March 16 in 1909) showing what their customers deposited on that day. They were asked to classify these deposits as cash, on the one hand, and as checks, drafts, etc. on the other. They were also asked to give a cross classification of the same deposits, as "retail deposits," "wholesale deposits," and "all other deposits." In 1909, over 12,000 banks of all kinds, out of about 25,000 banks, replied, and of these replies 11,492 were in available form. These replies showed a total of deposits of over 688 millions of dollars. Of this total, 647 millions were in checks, so that checks made up 94.1% of the whole. About 60 millions of this total were retail deposits, about 125 millions were wholesale deposits, and the rest, about 503 millions, were classed in the "all other" category. Kinley's use of these figures, for his purpose, seems to me in every way conclusive and safe. He was interested merely in the question of the proportions of checks and money in payments, retail, wholesale, and "all other." The absolute magnitudes of the elements in the equation of exchange he was not trying to measure. Professor Fisher's use of the figures presents a different problem.[385]
Let us consider, first, Professor Fisher's estimate of M´V´, taken together. M´V´ is considered to be equal to the total amount (in dollars) of checks deposited during the year.[386] To get this, for 1909, Kinley's figure, above, for checks deposited in 11,492 banks on March 16, 1909, is used. This figure is 647 millions. As half the banks had not reported, an estimate for the non-reporting banks was obtained from Professor Weston, who had aided Dean Kinley in the investigation, and who had access to the original data. Professor Weston estimated the total checks deposited during the day at 1.02 billions.[387] The question then arose as to whether this day was typical for the year. Professor Fisher found New York City bank clearings of March 17 (the day after, on which these checks would get into the clearings) to be 28% below the average for the year. He assumed the rest of the country to be half as abnormal as New York City, and increased the 1.02 billions to 1.20 billions, getting what he conceived to be the daily average of checks deposited in the United States in 1909. Multiplying this figure by 303, the number of banking days in New York City (and so, presumably, a fair average for the number of banking days in the country), he obtained 364 billions for the checks deposited in 1909. This figure he considered to be M´V´, the volume of bank deposits,[388] multiplied by its velocity of circulation. To obtain V´, therefore, his problem was simple: he divided the figure for M´V´ by the figure for M´ previously obtained from government statistics, and obtained V´.
Now I wish to call attention to three important errors involved in this calculation of M´V´ for 1909. (1) The assumption that the total check circulation is the same as the volume of checks actually used in trade is a violent one. Payments may be tax payments, loans and repayments, gifts, what not. Many checks may be used in a single transaction. Surely not all of this is properly to be counted in the M´V´ of the equation of exchange. But this topic is better discussed in connection with the estimate for T, and I reserve its fuller discussion till then. (2) The assumption that the rest of the country was abnormal in its clearings on March 17, 1909, is a pure assumption, which investigation does not verify. The rest of the country was, in fact, nearly normal! The error that comes for the year from increasing the total on this assumption amounts to at least 31 billions! The total for the year, on Professor Fisher's method of computation, with the correction to make the assumption regarding outside clearings correspond with the facts, is 333 billions, instead of 364 billions! As the figure for 1909 is a basic figure, on which figures for other years are calculated, this error is extremely significant.[389]
(3) A yet more serious error in this computation is the assumption that New York City was complete in Kinley's figures, while the rest of the country was incomplete. This error, as we shall see, largely neutralizes the error above, so far as the "finally adjusted" figure for 1909 is concerned, but it makes a vital difference in the figures for other years, as will appear, since it affects the "weighting" of New York clearings and outside clearings in the index of variation by means of which M´V´ for years other than 1909 is determined. The assumption that New York is complete, in Kinley's figures, and that all of the extra hundreds of millions added by Professor Weston in his estimate for the non-reporting banks belongs to the country outside New York, is made by Professor Fisher both on pp. 444-445, in estimating M´V´ for 1909, and on p. 446, in finding an index of variation for M´V´. The only reason given, so far as I can find, is the following: "This figure, being for New York, [Italics mine], is probably nearly complete." (Loc. cit., p. 446.) With this as a basis, Professor Fisher proceeds in his calculations to treat the figure for New York, 239 millions, as absolutely complete, and gives the rest of Professor Weston's 1.02 billions for the day, or 786 millions, to the country outside. The error above mentioned, of assuming the rest of the country to be abnormally low on March 17 in its clearings, still further increases the amount assigned to the rest of the country in the total figures for the year.[390] The conclusion finally is that New York had deposits of 93 billions in checks for the year, while the rest of the country had deposits of 271 billions in checks. As New York clearings for the year were 104 billions, while clearings for the rest of the country were only 62 billions, Professor Fisher concludes that New York clearings overcount New York check deposits, and outside clearings greatly undercount outside check deposits, so that, in the index of variation of check deposits, for years other than 1909 and 1896, New York clearings should be given a weight of only 1, while outside clearings should be weighted by 5. "That is, on the basis of 1909 figures, five times the outside clearings plus once the New York clearings should be a good barometer of check transactions." (P. 447.) All this rests on the assumption that New York figures for March 16, 1909, were complete, and the only reason assigned is, "being from New York!"
Now the figures from New York were not complete. And New York clearings do not overcount New York check deposits. Outside clearings do not undercount outside check deposits nearly to the extent that Professor Fisher assumes. For each of these three statements I shall offer what would seem to be conclusive evidence, and I shall attempt to get an estimate of the real relation between New York check transactions and check transactions for the rest of the country.
First, the figures for New York were far from complete. It may be noted that Dean Kinley, in his volume for 1909,[391] is very careful to repudiate the assumption that the cities were complete more than the country: "Moreover, it is a mere assumption that the non-reporting banks are mainly the small banks in the country districts. A great many city banks also did not report." (Italics mine.) That this is true for New York is abundantly evident from figures there given for the private banks and the trust companies, not to consider at all the State and national banks. New York shows only $1,751 in checks deposited in the "all other deposits" in private banks! This is a city which includes among its private bankers J. P. Morgan & Co., Kuhn, Loeb and Co., J. & W. Seligman & Co., and others! Figures from these banks appear nowhere in Kinley's totals, since deposits made by these banks in other banks are also excluded from Kinley's figures.[392] Of course, exact figures cannot be given to show how much New York would be increased had the private banks made full reports. We have no reports of any kind from these institutions. Every feature of their business is kept from the lime light, as far as possible—a practice which is much to be regretted, since it arouses hostility and suspicion, where a statement of the facts in the case would frequently entirely dispel them. We have, however, some information regarding the magnitude of their deposits, meaning by deposits, not what Kinley means in this investigation, namely, checks, etc., deposited on a given day, but rather, deposits in the balance sheet sense of demand obligations to depositors. In Nov. 1912, J. P. Morgan and Co. held deposits of $114,000,000, exclusive of 49 millions on deposit with their Philadelphia branch of Drexel & Co. About half of these were deposits of interstate corporations. Kuhn-Loeb held, on the average, for the six years preceding 1913 over 17 millions of deposits of interstate corporations. What their aggregate deposits were, we do not know. These figures are obtained from the report of the Pujo Committee.[393] Morgan's deposits were equalled by only three banks and two trust companies in New York (as of April 3, 1915), and Kuhn-Loeb's deposits for interstate corporations alone exceeded the total deposits of any one of the great majority of the New York Clearing House banks and trust companies. Of course, large deposits in the balance sheet sense need not mean large deposits made on a given day. Private bankers' deposits may be inactive. But we know, first, that half of these figures for Morgan, and the whole of the figures given for Kuhn-Loeb, represent the deposits of active business corporations, engaged in interstate business. They are not mere trust funds lying idle, or awaiting investment in securities. What the rest are we can only conjecture. That they are deposits of men and firms connected with the Stock Exchange in some way is highly probable. The whole drift of the statistics presented in this book, and of the argument developed in this book, would serve to show that such deposits are likely to be more than ordinarily active.[394] I refrain from assigning any figures as to the amount of checks deposited in private banks in New York on March 16, 1909. It must have run high into the millions.[395] It certainly exceeded the two thousands, or less, reported to Kinley! The figures for New York were, thus, incomplete.
But the trust companies were also incomplete. The national banks in New York reported checks totaling 186.5 millions, for all three classes of deposits; the State banks reported only 38.1 millions; the trust companies only 14.2 millions. With aggregate deposits, as shown by their balance sheets, exceeding the deposits of national banks[396] the New York City trust companies reported, as deposited on March 16, 1909, less than half as much as the State banks, less than a tenth as much as the national banks, and only 6.8% of the two combined—5.9% of the total from all three classes of institutions!
These figures are hard to reconcile with the assumption that the trust companies in New York were complete on that date.
It is, of course, possible that the trust companies, though having large deposits, have inactive deposits. This is sometimes held to be the case. But that the difference is so great in activity of deposit accounts between banks and trust companies is hardly credible. I have looked into this matter with considerable care, and have secured information and opinions from men intimately acquainted with the trust companies of New York from the inside. The only available quantitative measure of the activity of deposits would seem to be the volume of a bank's clearings. This is not perfectly accurate, by any means, but it is the best available test. Through the courtesy of a Vice President of one of the largest New York trust companies, I have obtained figures from an official of the Clearing House, which show that in New York trust company clearings run from 20 to 25% of the whole. On this basis, the trust company figures for 1909 were incomplete to the extent of from 33 millions to 46 millions, on the day in question. These clearings figures, however, are for the year, 1915, and not for the period before May, 1911, when the trust companies were admitted to the Clearing House. Prior to that time they did not deal directly with the Clearing House, but through the member banks. Do these figures, therefore, represent the situation as it existed in 1909? The possibility was entertained that entering the Clearing House had made a difference in the reserve policy of the trust companies, and so had made them change the character of their business, in such a way as to bring about greater activity of accounts. This question was put to the official of the trust company before mentioned, and his reply is that the State law regarding reserves (passed after the Panic of 1907) had already brought about this change in reserve policy, and so no difference was made upon entering the Clearing House.
The same gentleman, by the way, replying to a question regarding the deposits in private banks in New York, and the influence of such deposits on clearings, writes: "The actual figures could not be obtained from the Clearing House..., consequently can only say that deposits made with these houses add to the Clearing House totals very large sums."
There is one piece of evidence which would seem to negative these conclusions regarding the trust companies. In the Report of the New York State Superintendent of Banks, for Dec. 31, 1907, p. xxxv, is a statement that during the two years, 1903-05, the trust companies of New York cleared only 7% as much as the banks. The statement relates, however, to a period during which the trust companies not only had no Clearing House membership, which of course was true up to 1911, but also had largely withdrawn from the privilege of clearing through member banks.[397] Under these circumstances, even 7% would seem quite high. Inquiry was made of the Honorable Clark Williams, who was State Superintendent of Banks at the time the report was made, as to the source of the figures.[398] Mr. Williams, in reply, defends the figures as correct for that period, but authorizes the writer to quote him as in no way surprised at the percentages given above, 20 to 25% of the total clearings, in view of developments and changes in trust company business.
I conclude that the trust company figures for March 16, 1909, were exceedingly incomplete. The national bank figures were probably more nearly complete than any others, first because they are large, and second, because national banks would feel more obligation than other banks to reply to questions from the Comptroller. The State bank figures, 38.1 millions, as against national bank figures of 186.5 millions, were probably incomplete also, to a considerable extent, though State banks are not dominating factors in New York City. That they should exceed the figures for trust companies is surely evidence of the incompleteness of the trust company figures. The private banks are incomplete, with absolute certainty, since they are virtually not represented at all.
Further evidence that the New York figures were incomplete, however, will appear in the data regarding our second thesis, namely, that New York clearings do not overcount New York check deposits. The aggregate check deposits reported from New York, on the date in question, is 239 millions. Clearings for that day were 268 millions,[399] substantially exceeding the reported check deposits. Now do clearings exceed check deposits in New York City?
Evidence with reference to outside clearings, in connection with bank transactions, we now have in very definite and abundant form, and it will be convenient to approach the question of New York clearings, first, indirectly, via country clearings. We shall, therefore, take up first the thesis that clearings outside New York do not undercount bank deposits outside New York nearly as much as Professor Fisher thinks. According to his estimate, checks deposited during the year in banks outside New York (exclusive of checks deposited by one bank in another) were 271 billions. (Loc. cit., 446.) Outside clearings were only 62 billions, and his conclusion is that the ratio of deposits to clearings is 4.4 to 1, or, in other words, that outside clearings amount to less than 22.8% of outside check deposits.
Now an extensive investigation, covering the period from June, 1913, to Oct. 1914, inclusive, has been made by the American Bankers' Association, through Mr. O. Howard Wolfe, Secretary of the Clearing House Section. This investigation covered cities of various sizes, in various parts of the country. Its results are immensely more trustworthy than any results based on a single day, as Professor Fisher's results are, could be, even had Professor Fisher's method been otherwise correct. An account of this investigation is to be found in the Annalist of Dec. 7, 1914.[400] This investigation involves, for the period in question, a comparison of "total bank transactions" in each city with the clearings of that city, together with a summary covering all the cities. "Total bank transactions" consist of all debits against deposit liabilities of each member of the Clearing House, whether they come through the Clearing House or over the counter. They include payrolls, for example, which, of course, never get into clearings. They include drafts on deposits of one bank in another. In a letter to the Editor of the Annalist, Mr. Wolfe states that "total bank transactions include all debits against deposit liabilities, whether by check, draft or charge ticket. The only exceptions are certified checks and certain cashier's checks, both of which to an extent represent a duplication." For the period in question, clearings amounted, on the average, for all cities, to 40% of "total transactions." The cities did not include New York City, as stated.
Now we cannot apply this 40% at once to the question in hand. Professor Fisher's 22.8% relates to the relation between clearings and checks and drafts deposited, excluding items deposited by banks, and excluding, of course, cash deposited. What is the relation between Kinley's "deposits" and Wolfe's "total transactions"?
It is clear that "total transactions" must, in a period of time, exceed Kinley's "deposits" very considerably. In a general way, what goes out of a bank, and what comes into a bank, must approximately equal one another in a period of time. In a general way, a depositor finds his income and his outgo balancing. Of course, some accumulate, paying in more than they withdrew, but in general such accounts are made with savings banks. The business man borrows from his bank, getting a "deposit credit" (without "depositing" in Kinley's sense), then checks against his "deposit," then receives checks in payments to himself, "deposits" them, building up his deposit balance again, and then checks against his deposit balance, in favor of the bank, to pay off his loan. What comes in and what goes out—abstracting from the growth of a rapidly expanding bank—balance. But notice, in the case cited above, that "total transactions" include more items than Kinley's "deposits" show. When the bank makes a loan, and gives a deposit credit, this does not, usually, show in Kinley's deposits. When, however, the loan is paid off by a check to the bank, it does show in "total transactions." Moreover, when a man deposits cash in the bank, it does not show in Kinley's figures for checks deposited. When, however, he withdraws cash from the bank, or his check to another is "cashed," it does appear in "total transactions." Further, checks deposited to the credit of one bank in another do not appear in Kinley's figures. Checks drawn, however, by one bank on another do appear in total transactions. How great the difference is between "total transactions" and "deposits" in the banks outside New York we cannot say precisely. The cash items alone, on the basis of Kinley's figures, would make a difference of about 9%.[401] To allow 11% excess to "total transactions" over "deposits" for the other reasons listed, is surely not to make an exaggerated allowance. We thus count "deposits" in Kinley's sense, for the banks outside New York City, as 80% of "total transactions." Since, then, clearings are 40% of "total transactions," they will be 50% of "deposits." This figure is more than twice as great as Professor Fisher's figure of 22.8%. Even if we counted deposits as equalling total transactions, Professor Fisher's estimate would be clearly very much too low.
How, then, do we stand? On Professor Fisher's showing, the overwhelming bulk of checks deposited were in the country outside New York—271 billions for the year, outside, as against 93 billions in New York City. If the ratio (50%) for outside clearings to deposits was the same for 1909 that it was in 1913-14 for the outside banks, we shall have to revise this radically. We have 62 billions of country clearings in 1909; we would have, then, 124 billions[402] of country check deposits! If Fisher's total figure for the country is correct, 353 billions as "finally adjusted," the balance, or 229 billions, would belong to New York! New York clearings, 104 billions, would thus be less than half of New York deposits! If we count outside clearings for 1909 as only 40% of outside check deposits, outside deposits would be, for 1909, only 155 billions, as against Professor Fisher's 271 billions, a difference of 116 billions! I am sure that his error in estimating outside check deposits is at least as great as that, and that we cannot assign to New York City less than a major part of the total check deposits of the whole country.
This result fits in with the figures actually reported to Dean Kinley, corrected to fit the known facts about March 17 clearings, better than Professor Fisher's estimate, by a good margin. According to Professor Fisher's estimate, New York City checks deposited are only 25.5% of the total. Kinley's actual figures give 239 millions to New York City, and 408 millions to the country outside. But New York clearings were 28% below normal on March 17, while country clearings were only 2.45% below normal. Adding 28% to the figure for New York checks, we get 306 millions. Adding 2.45% to the outside checks, we get 418 millions. Of the total, 724 millions, New York checks would be, then, 42.3%. We have shown reasons for considering New York deposits to be very incomplete for March 16, particularly as regards the private banks and trust companies. Comparison of the New York figures with the results indicated by the ratio of country clearings to country deposits would thus indicate that New York was much less complete than the country as a whole. Even so, I need to add but 7.3% of the total to Kinley's actual figures for New York, corrected in the light of next day clearings, to give New York half of the check deposits. Professor Fisher must subtract 16.8% of the total from the actual figures for New York, as corrected in the light of next day's clearings, in order to get his figure of 25.5%. To vary as widely from the actually reported figures as Professor Fisher does, I should have to assign 59.1% of total check deposits to New York City. I refrain from making an exact estimate. I am content with the conclusion that something more than half of the checks deposited in 1909 were in New York. This seems to be too clear for serious controversy.
The indirect approach to the relation between New York clearings and New York deposits, via the study of outside clearings in 1913 and 1914, taken in conjunction with the figures for check deposits in 1909, would seem to make it quite clear that New York clearings do not exceed New York deposits, or, indeed, constitute a substantially higher percentage of them than is the case with country clearings and deposits.[403] Logically, assuming the correctness of the estimate for checks deposited, the case is complete: we have a simple problem in arithmetic: given country clearings for 1909, 62 billions; given the ratio of country clearings to country deposits (and a minimum for this ratio is clearly given, in the 40% which country clearings are of "total transactions"), we can fix a maximum for country deposits, which is 155 billions. Then, given our estimate of 353 billions for total check deposits, we subtract the maximum possible for country deposits from it, and get a minimum possible for New York City of 198 billions of check deposits. Comparing this with the known clearings of 104 billions in New York, we find that New York clearings constitute, as a maximum possible, 52.5% of New York check deposits. If the reasons given for holding check deposits in the country to be less than total transactions are accepted, the ratio of clearings to deposits in New York City is lower.