The cast collection is installed in Galleries B-2, 10, 11, 12 and the J corridors on the First Floor. To view the collection in chronological sequence, the visitor should proceed from the octagonal Gallery B-2 (V century Greek sculpture) down the north side of corridor B-3 (V century Greek sculpture). Returning, the visitor will find in the alcoves on the south side of the corridor casts of Greek sculpture of the IV century and Hellenistic periods, and casts of Roman sculpture. The collection is continued in Gallery B-10 (Gothic sculpture), which should be entered from the corridor. Casts of Renaissance sculpture are exhibited in Gallery B-1 (Early Renaissance, XV century) and Gallery B-12 (Late Renaissance, XVI century). Other casts of sculptures of the Renaissance and later periods are exhibited in the west corridor.
The educational value of a cast collection is beyond question. Through these mechanical reproductions, it is possible to obtain a fairly adequate idea of the great masterpieces of sculpture, that are inaccessible to many, except in this form. In the plaster cast one may study proportions, composition, style and even technical procedure; but it must be remembered that the qualities of color and texture, which contribute so much to the effect of the original, are almost, if not entirely, lost in the plaster [pg 2] cast. This defect may be overcome in part by treating the plaster in various ways so that it conveys some suggestion of the original material. This has been done with our casts, adding materially to the attractiveness of the collection.
In connection with the casts of Greek and Roman sculpture in our collection, the following notes on classical art may be of interest. As to the characteristics of Gothic and Renaissance art, the reader is referred to the notes on pages 31-32 and 47-48.
A remarkable civilization (Minoan, Cretan, Aegean, or Prehellenic, as it is variously called), extending over a thousand years, preceded the classical period of Greek art. This earlier civilization was brought to an end by the so-called Dorian invasion at the close of the second millennium, and several hundred years had to elapse before conditions once again were right for the flourishing of art. Greece of the classical period begins to emerge towards the end of the VII century B. C. The Archaic Period (about 625-480 B. C.) was one of experimentation, preparatory to the age of perfection, when, technical difficulties having been overcome and aesthetic aims defined, Greek art attained an eminence never surpassed.
Victorious at Salamis and Plataea, the Greek world arose triumphant from its struggles with Asia. The birth of national consciousness ushered in a new period of art, the Golden Age of Greece (480-400 B. C.). The conventions of the archaic style gave place to a free style, adequate to the sculptor's every need. Grace, simplicity, and truth in the representation of the living form characterize the sculpture of this period; draperies are rendered with marvelous skill. Liberal patronage was extended to the arts, particularly by the state. Under these favorable conditions, which reached their climax in the Age of Pericles (461-431 B. C.), Hellenic ideals of proportion, sanity and self-command found perfect embodiment in sculpture. From about the middle of the V century, Athens was the unquestioned leader in the field of art, her nearest rival, the ancient school of Argos. Among the great sculptors of the V century, three stand out in particular prominence: Myron, who excelled in the representation of bodily forms and action; Polyclitus, the sculptor of athletes and the exponent of academic perfection; and above all Phidias, the great genius of the age, who combined technical skill with the expression of lofty, spiritual ideals.
In the next period, that of the IV century (400-323 B. C.) individualism began to dominate Greek thought and action, replacing the earlier civic and religious influences. Art became more individual and more emotional. Portraiture grew in favor. The austere style of Phidias gave place to the dreamy sentiment of Praxiteles, to the fiery passion of Scopas. The gods descended from high Olympus and walked the earth in human guise. The three great sculptors of this age were Praxiteles, Scopas and Lysippus.
[pg 3]Sculpture of the Hellenistic Period (323-146 B. C.) shows a further development of tendencies already manifested in the preceding century. Individualism led to a vigorous development of portraiture and genre sculpture. Art ran the whole gamut of passion, from the bestial to the ideal, and this amplification of the emotional theme was accompanied by a wider range of subject material than had yet occurred. With these changes came a lowering of ideals. Spiritual emptiness, sensationalism, and lack of self-restraint are only too often characteristic of Hellenistic art. The chief centres of art in this period were not in Greece, but at Pergamon, Rhodes and Alexandria.
The development of Roman sculpture was influenced, on the one hand, by native Italian realistic tendencies, and on the other, by the example of Greek sculpture. Not only were there in Rome numerous Greek sculptures to serve as models, but also many transplanted Greek artists, who had left their native land to seek employment in Italy. To the copies of famous masterpieces executed by these eclectic artists, it may be remarked, we owe our knowledge of many celebrated works of Greek sculpture, which otherwise would have been lost to us. In studying Roman art we note first one tendency, then the other, predominating, but neither is ever lost to sight. It is this dualism that gives to Roman art its distinctive character.
[pg 4]The Print Department occupies two rooms on the Main Floor (Print Study Room and Library) and a large exhibition gallery on the Second Floor. The collection, comprising over 5,000 prints, was the munificent gift to the Society in 1916 of an anonymous donor. The collection, formerly owned by William M. Ladd of Portland, Oregon, represents the work of years in collecting, and illustrates in a comprehensive way the history of the graphic arts. The strength of the collection lies in its splendid representation of the work of XIX century and modern etchers. In this respect it may be said to be second only to the famous Avery Collection in New York. The collection offers an exceptional opportunity for the study and enjoyment of a branch of art that is intimately related to drawing and painting and yet has distinctive qualities of its own.
Selections of prints, frequently changed, are exhibited in the large gallery devoted to this purpose on the Second Floor. Prints not on exhibition are kept in the Print Study Room on the First Floor, to the left of the entrance. Visitors are welcome. The curator is glad to show any prints not on exhibition and to assist the student in every way possible. Adjoining the Study Room is the Library, where in addition to general reference books deposited by the Minneapolis Athenaeum, there is a valuable reference library on the subject of prints, which formed part of the former Ladd Collection. Students will also find useful a collection which is now being made of photographs and other reproductions of works of art.
It is difficult, of course, to give any adequate idea in so brief a space of the scope of the collection, but the following comments may be of interest. Among the prints by the early masters, of the XV and XVI centuries, there are examples of the work of Martin Schongauer; a large group of 106 engravings and wood-cuts by the great German master, Albrecht Durer; some characteristic prints by the so-called “Little Masters,” Beham, Pencz, and Aldegrever; and a small group of engravings by the XV century Italian master, Andrea Mantegna.
By Rembrandt, the outstanding figure in the graphic arts of the XVII century, we are fortunate in possessing 127 etchings, all of them good and many in brilliant impressions. Other engravers and etchers of the XVII century are well represented. Among the Dutch masters may be instanced Paul Potter, Ruysdael, A. van de Velde; among the French, Callot, Claude Lorrain, and the portrait engravers, Nanteuil, Morin and Masson. The XVII century group is an interesting one. We may note 34 etchings by Piranesi and an important collection of English mezzotints by McArdell, S. D. Reynolds, Earlom, Valentine Green, and others.
As to modern etchers and engravers, the collection presents an [pg 5] embarrassment of riches. The masters of this period are finely represented. There are 34 etchings by Meryon; 103 etchings and lithographs by Whistler, including beautiful impressions of the Venetian and Amsterdam sets; 242 prints by Sir Francis Seymour Haden, a collection particularly interesting for the number of trial proofs and different states which it includes. There is a notable group of 242 etchings by Jacque, including a large number of rare early dry-points; an important collection of Millet's etchings and woodcuts; 124 prints by Buhot; 119 prints by Legros; 53 prints by Lepere; 156 prints by van Muyden; a characteristic group of lithographs by Fantin Latour; 90 prints by Storm van's Gravesande, including all his important plates; 32 examples of the work of M. A. J. Bauer. Turner's famous Liber Studiorum is represented by a nearly complete set, including 24 first states. The collection is rich in the work of contemporary British artists. There are, in addition to the large group of Hadens, 138 prints by Sir Frank Short; 72 prints by the Scotch etcher, D. Y. Cameron; and fine examples of the work of Muirhead Bone, Brangwyn, Strang, and other contemporary artists. Modern German work is represented by an interesting collection of etchings, woodcuts, lithography and color-printing. To conclude this brief summary of the European artists represented in the collection, we may mention the group of 20 etchings by the Swedish painter and etcher, Anders Zorn.
Coming to the work of American etchers, we find a large group of prints by Joseph Pennell, including his Panama Canal lithographs; the complete work of D. Shaw MacLaughlan, down to about 1912; the almost complete work of Charles Platt; 55 prints by Stephen Parrish; and a representative group of dry-points by Mary Cassatt.
[pg 6]This is a fine impression of the second state of Rembrandt's masterpiece known as The Hundred Guilder Print, so-called because it is supposed to have brought that price—a high one for the period—in Rembrandt's own time. Rembrandt is not only the greatest artist of the Dutch school, but also the greatest master of etching the world has ever known.
The art of mezzotint engraving attained its highest development in England during the XVIII century. The English portrait painters were quick to recognize that the mezzotint process with its delicacy of tone and beautiful, velvety quality was admirably suited to the reproduction of their works. Reynolds is said to have employed, under his supervision, one hundred mezzotint engravers in the reproduction of his portraits. English mezzotints are well represented in our collection.
The subject of this large etching is the breaking up of one of England's famous old ships of war, called the Agamemnon. Haden was not only a surgeon eminent in his profession, but also one of the greatest of English etchers. The revival of interest in etching during the XIX century in England was largely due to his efforts. Characteristic works of Whistler and Meryon are illustrated below.
Our print collection is notably rich in the work of Millet. The etchings are all fine impressions, in some cases exceptional in quality. The collection also includes Millet's lithograph, The Sower, and his rare heliogravure, Maternal Precaution. Of the six wood-engravings drawn by Millet and cut by his brothers, three are represented in the collection.
Millet was a thoughtful artist, to whom the spirit of things was at least as important as their visual aspect. His deep and sincere sympathy with the life of the peasant, to whose class he himself belonged, determined to a large extent his choice of subject. But Millet never descended to anecdotal trivialities; he avoided the pale sentimentality of such a painter as Jules Breton. His thought, like his technique, was virile, positive, honest. Millet was far above any trickery, either of thought or of execution.
The very intensity of his intellectual interests led Millet to evolve a personal style that is distinguished by its simplicity and directness. As an artist, Millet is more allied to Durer than to Rubens. Color plays but a small part in his pictures. Significant, expressive line is the first essential of his art, and with this simple means he secures a surprising effect of plastic form. When color is added to outline, he is primarily interested in establishing accurately the values of the different planes. Both in his use of line and of mass, it is Millet's invariable practice to simplify, omitting everything that is not essential to his purpose.
The art of the Nearer Orient is the product of many races. The phrase covers in general the art of India, Persia, Syria, Mohammedan Egypt, Turkey, and even, in certain aspects, the art of Spain, Portugal and southern Italy. Although the development of this art was by no means uniform or along the same lines, the products are all related in style, which is unmistakable and distinct from other types of design. The most typical manifestation of this style would appear to have originated in Egypt about the time of the Mohammedan conquest in 638 A. D., and almost simultaneously in Syria and northern Persia. Since the Koran forbade the representation of any living creature, Mohammedan artists developed the so-called arabesque style, based on geometric and floral motives. This limitation, however, was not observed by the Persians, who introduced human and animal life into their designs with beautiful results.
[pg 10]The earliest lustred ware of Persia is that found in the ruins of the ancient city of Rhages. This prosperous city was destroyed in 1221 during the Mongol invasion. It may be assumed that most of the fragments found in the tumuli at Rhages date from the early years of the XIII century. Non-lustred pottery with polychrome decoration was also produced at Rhages during this period.
The mosque doors, from Ispahan, illustrated on the opposite page, are particularly fine examples of Persian wood carving. The arabesque designs are especially beautiful. The inscriptions in the upper and lower small panels have been translated as follows:
Panel, Upper Right: Oh God, do not indifferently drive me from your door.
Panel, Upper Left: For if you do, there will be no other door open to me.
Panel, Lower Right: Oh, my heart, do not be far off from the door of those who are sincere and faithful.
Panel, Lower Left: Anyone who is far from the door is near to God.
In the middle of the VI century of the Christian era, Buddhism was introduced into Japan by way of Korea. Through the vehicle of this new religion, Chinese art began to exert a fructifying influence upon the native art of Japan, which up to this time had achieved nothing worthy of mention. Chinese influence continued in succeeding ages a potent factor in the development of Japanese art. In the art of the Suiko (552-644), Hakuho (645-709), Tempyo (710-793), Jogan (794-899), and Fujiwara (900-1190) periods, the inspiration was largely Chinese, but more and more the native genius manifested itself in modifications of the spirit and technique. This evolution toward a distinctive national art and culture made considerable advances in the Fujiwara period, which ended in social revolution and the establishment of a military vice-royalty at Kamakura.
The Kamakura period (1190-1337) is the feudal era of Japan. The spirit of individualism and hero-worship which distinguishes this age brought about a great development in portraiture, even the gods assuming a more individualized character. Battle scenes and the achievements of famous warriors and heroes were popular subjects. To overawe the populace, religious artists for the first time pictured the horrors of hell. Forceful delineation and the vigorous expression of action are characteristic of Kamakura art.
Zenism, a metaphysical doctrine introduced from China to Japan in the Kamakura period, had a very great influence in the succeeding Ashikaga period (1337-1582) in shaping the course of art. The Zen sect of Buddhism, discarding ritual, sought salvation through self-concentration and meditation. Subjective idealism and the search of the inner spirit of things, fostered by Zenism, led the Ashikaga artists to practice a rigorous economy of means, eliminating color in general and all details not essential to the expression of the artist's idea. The search for the hidden beauty [pg 13] in all things was not confined to the major arts but led to the beautification of the humblest household utensils. In the ornamentation of sword guards the metal workers showed extraordinary ability. The Ashikaga era ended in turmoil. In 1582 Toyotomi Hideyoshi, a man of the humblest origin, brought order out of chaos, and became virtual ruler over a unified Japan.
Under the patronage of Hideyoshi and his ennobled generals, the sober refinement of Ashikaga art gave way to gorgeous decoration, resplendent with gold and brilliant colors, that shows the influence of the mature Ming style of China. The leading artist of this period in Japan was Yeitoku (1543-1590), who with his numerous pupils painted sumptuous decorations for the palaces of the wealthy nobles. By Yeitoku are the two large screens illustrated above. This artist created perhaps the greatest purely decorative style of painting that the world has ever known.
After the death of Hideyoshi in 1602, Iyeyasu founded the Tokugawa Shogunate (1603-1867). During the long “Tokugawa peace” various schools of art developed. Koetsu (d. 1637) and his great followers, Sotatsu (middle XVIII century) and Korin (d. 1716), established the so-called Korin school, seeking to combine the rich coloring of pre-Ashikaga days with the bold treatment of the Zen school. Kano Tanyu and his followers attempted to return to the purity of the Ashikaga masters, but met with only partial success. Patronage was largely in the hands of a prosperous middle class who demanded something more easily understood than the aristocratic art of the earlier periods. To meet this demand a more democratic school arose, and many gifted artists through their paintings of popular festivals and other familiar scenes prepared the way for the Ukiyo-e, or school of common life. Under the inspiration of this popular school, the art of printing in colors from wood blocks was brought to a high state of perfection. Little original work of any importance has been produced in Japan since the Restoration in 1868.
The study of ancient Chinese art is attended by discouraging uncertainties. Only a few bronzes, jades, and possibly a small quantity of pottery, have survived to testify to the early development of art in China. To add to the difficulty, the exact dating of this material is at best only tentative. But whether the most ancient of these bronzes and jades are to be attributed to the Shang Dynasty (1766-1122 B. C.) or, with more probability, to the succeeding Chou Dynasty (1122-255), the technical skill which they display postulates so long a period of preparation that the origins of Chinese art must be referred to a past too remote for our present discernment. With the Han Dynasty (B. C. 206-221 A. D.), we find ourselves on surer ground, since many works of art of various kinds and materials, and unquestionably of this era, have come down to us. Not only bronzes and jades but also pottery and sculpture bear witness to the flourishing art of this period. During the Han Dynasty, probably in the first century of our era, Buddhism reached China from India. It does not appear, however, to have exerted much influence upon the arts until about the V century. The Han Dynasty was followed by a succession of shorter reigns known as the Three Kingdoms and the Six Dynasties.
Early in the VII century, the great house of T'ang (618-907) came to power, and for three hundred years held sway over a vast empire. It was the period of China's greatest external power; the period of her greatest poetry; and of her grandest and most vigorous, if not, perhaps, her most perfect art. The surviving works of art of this era are far from numerous, but they are sufficient to warrant the belief that China, except in the field of ceramic art, rarely if ever surpassed the achievements of this golden age. Chinese Buddhist sculpture attained its noblest development in the T'ang period. As to T'ang painting—unfortunately, surviving examples are of the utmost rarity—it is characterized by austere beauty and spiritual elevation. Admirable also are the productions of the metal worker, the weaver, and the potter.
A short period of half a century succeeded the fall of the T'ang Dynasty. We come then to another of the great periods of Chinese civilization, that of the Sung Dynasty (960-1280). From now on, surviving monuments permit us greater certainty in studying the continuous development of Chinese art. Under the Sung emperors we find a complex civilization marked by luxury of living, refinement and elegance of [pg 16] taste. These characteristics are reflected in the arts. Although religeous painting was largely practiced, Sung artists show a predilection for landscape and for subjects allied to landscape, such as birds and flowers. Exceptional qualities of poetic imagination, observation of nature and technical proficiency characterize these paintings. Achievements in the field of minor arts are conspicuous; in particular, we may note the productions of potters.
The Sung Dynasty was succeeded by that of the Mongol invaders who founded the Yuan Dynasty (1280-1368). With the art of this period, the decline begins. The Mongols were followed by a native dynasty, the Ming (1368-1644), under whom the art of porcelain making began to progress rapidly toward perfection. Ming paintings show an excessive refinement, an elegance that is not without its charm, but they lack the nobility and spirituality of the earlier periods. In the Ch'ing, or Manchu, Dynasty (1644-1912), under the Emperors K'ang Hsi and his grandson, Ch'ien Lung, the art of porcelain manufacture and decoration reached its apogee. Today, after forty centuries of liberal harvest, the art soil of China would seem to be sterile and abandoned.
| Shang Dynasty 1766-1122 B. C. | |||||||
| Chou Dynasty 1122-255 B. C. | |||||||
| Ch'in Dynasty 255-206 B. C. | |||||||
| Han Dynasty B. C. 206-221 A. D. | |||||||
| Three Kingdoms 221-265 A. D. | |||||||
| Six Dynasties 265-618 A. D. | |||||||
| T'ang Dynasty 618-907 A. D. | |||||||
| Five Dynasties 907-960 A. D. | |||||||
| Sung Dynasty 960-1280 A. D. | |||||||
| Yuan Dynasty 1280-1368 A. D. | |||||||
| Ming Dynasty 1368-1644 A. D. | |||||||
Ch'ing Dynasty 1644-1912 A. D.
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| Republic from 1912 |
The early Chinese believed in the resurrection of the physical man, and only after many centuries did the idea of mere spiritual survival vaguely supplant the earlier superstition. To minister to the needs of the dead the Chinese of the Han period (206 B. C.-221 A. D.) stocked their tombs with jars containing wine and pickled meats, with articles of jade, with clothes, mirrors and weapons. To these were added costly treasures, furniture, chariots, live animals; even immolation of relatives and retainers was practiced in early times. As the conception of spiritual survival gradually replaced that of bodily life after death, simulacra of the objects used in life came to be substituted in burial for real objects. To this class belongs the horse's head, illustrated on this page, intended to take the place of a living sacrifice. The material is a soft grey earthenware, covered with a layer of buff clay, perhaps an original slip or perhaps an adhering soil incrustation. The modeling of the head, which has been made from a mould, combines a close study of nature with monumental elimination of the non-essential. Designs of the period engraved on stone show a similar enthusiasm for the horse and a similar method of treatment, the interest being in the decorative and linear aspect more than in the realistic and plastic.
The vase is a typical piece of mortuary pottery of the Han period. It is made of hard reddish clay covered with a thick translucent green glaze, in parts become iridescent. The form is derived from an earlier bronze type; the simulated rings which originally formed the handles of the earlier type of vessel should be noted. The vase is decorated with a band of hunting scenes and animals, real and fabulous, modeled in low relief.
[pg 18]During the Sung dynasty, a period of highly developed civilization landscape painting occupied the attention of the greatest artists. Wearying of the complexity of life, men of culture turned with eager desire to the peace and solitude of nature. This love of nature finds beautiful expression in the paintings of Ma Yuan, one of the three greatest landscape painters of the period. By this artist, who flourished in the latter part of the XII century and the first part of the following century, is the large kakemono painted in monochrome on silk, which is illustrated opposite. The subject is the meeting between the Taoist teacher, Lee Erh, and his disciple, Ying Hai, on the mountain Wah Shan, one of the five largest mountains of China. Characteristic of the period is the loftiness and simplicity of the style, an austerity tempered by the serene and silent joy of the true lover of nature. Irrelevant details are omitted; only those which are significant expressing the artist's mood in contemplation of nature are recorded.
The earliest Chinese religion was essentially astronomical and cosmic. Heaven, earth, and the four quarters were the six cosmic powers worshiped as deities. The symbol of earth was a yellow jade “tube” or hollow cylinder, round inside and square outside, with a short, projecting neck at either end. The earth was thought of as round in its interior and square outside. The jade earth “tube” or “huang t'sung” in our collection is a very ancient piece, possibly dating from the Chou period (1122-255 B.C.). To the Sung period (960-1280 A. D.) may be assigned the beautiful jade reproduced in the illustration, although the type is reminiscent of Han productions.
[pg 19]Attributed to Pien Chin-Stan, an artist of the Yuan period (1280-1368), is the painting of birds and flowers reproduced on this page. The mellow harmony of the colors is particularly delightful. Exquisite sensitiveness to beauties of line and form, combined with loving observation of nature, distinguishes the drawing. Although paintings of the Yuan period, generally speaking, are inferior to the Sung, lacking the spiritual qualities that characterize the earlier period, in such work as this the great traditions of Chinese painting are worthily continued. To appreciate Chinese painting one must rid oneself of the mistaken idea, so common to Occidentals, that a work of art depends for success upon its “likeness” to nature. Petty imitation of the appearance of things plays no part in Chinese painting. It is the expression in terms of beauty of the inner and informing spirit, rather than the outward semblance, that constitutes the aim of the Chinese artist.
From remote antiquity, jade has been highly prized by the Chinese as the most precious of precious stones. In the ornamental carving of this beautiful mineral, the Chinese may justly claim pre-eminence. The little statuette here reproduced represents one of the Chinese immortals, Tung Fang So, who carries the peaches of longevity. The jade is light greyish-green in color. The carving probably dates from the late Ming period.
[pg 20]This painting represents Princess Yang Kwei-Fei, the celebrated favorite of the Emperor T'ang Huan Tsung, returning from her bath. It is an excellent example of the Ming period (1368-1644 A. D.), lovely in color, distinguished by courtly elegance and refinement of drawing. It has been attributed to Yiu Kiu, also named Tze-Kiu. The daughter of a petty functionary, the Princess Yang became in 735 A. D. one of the concubines of the Emperor's eighteenth son. Her surpassing beauty and accomplishments won the affections of the Emperor himself. So great was her ascendancy over this weak voluptuary that the Imperial favorite was treated by the court with demonstrations of respect that justly appertained to none save the Empress Consort; members of her family were raised to high office; and no outlay was spared in gratifying the caprice and covetousness of the Princess or her relatives. It is not surprising that a rebellion resulted. During the flight of the court in 756 A. D. the Imperial guard revolted, and the Emperor was constrained to order the Princess Yang to be strangled.
The porcelain vase is decorated in five colors on a white ground with a design showing a peacock, a phoenix and smaller birds among rocks, foliage and blossoms. It is a characteristic and fine production of the late Ming Period (1368-1644). Altogether admirable is the way in which the design, drawn with great freedom and boldness, is adapted to the shape of the vase. The colors are skillfully harmonized; the beautiful blue should be particularly noted.
[pg 21]Apple-green, ashes-of-rose, mirror-black, camellia-green, lemon-yellow, and celadon are some of the beautiful glazes exemplified in this group of remarkable “solid-color” porcelains dating from the reigns of K'ang Hsi, Yung Cheng and Ch'ien Lung (second half of XVII century and the XVIII century). The large plate is a fine piece of K'ang Hsi decorated porcelain. Most of the pieces in this case were formerly in the celebrated Morgan Collection. Gift of Mrs. E. C. Gale.
The Egyptian collection, purchased from the Drexel Institute, includes over seven hundred objects, ranging from sculpture and painting to furniture and utensils of daily life. It affords an adequate illustration of the conditions under which art flourished in the ancient land of the Nile, and of the characteristic forms of art expression which were evolved to meet these conditions.
After monumental architecture, the system of decoration evolved by the Egyptians is perhaps their greatest contribution to the world's art. A few characteristics of Egyptian painting and sculpture may be noted. Color is used in flat areas without gradation and effects of light and shade. [pg 23] In drawing, outline is the principal mode of representation. Various conventions originating in the primitive stages of art, such as the representation of the human body with head and legs in profile and the shoulder to the front, became traditional and were continued with little change throughout later periods. These conventions, however, did not prevent the artist in the more vigorous periods of Egyptian art from noting with great keenness of observation many truths of nature. This curious conflict between realistic observation and conventional means of representation is characteristic of Egyptian art. In free-standing sculpture, the variety of postures was limited to a few unvarying poses. On the whole, in the figurative arts, types and subjects remain unchanged throughout Egyptian history, although from time to time the informing spirit was different.
This immutable character of Egyptian art is thoroughly consonant with the idea of duration which was so strongly a controlling factor in Egyptian life. We cannot consider here the manifold ramifications of Egyptian religious belief, but one central tenet—that existence continued after death—must receive some attention, since this belief in the after-world explains many features that might otherwise be puzzling. The tomb, for example, was thought of as the real dwelling house, “the eternal house of the dead”; the houses of the living were merely “wayside inns.” As a result, domestic architecture was inconsequential; all efforts were concentrated on the construction and decoration of tombs and temples.
The mummy is enclosed in a cartonnage, made of many layers of linen held together by plaster, elaborately decorated by inscriptions and figures of the gods. The anthropoid coffin is made of wood, and is also richly decorated. Tesha was the daughter of the Doorkeeper of the Golden House (or Treasury) of Amon at Thebes.
[pg 24]It was believed that man was composed of different entities each having its separate life and function. First, there was the body itself; then, the Ka or double—the ethereal projection of the individual, corresponding in a way to our ghost. Two other elements were the Ba or soul and the Khu or luminous spark from the divine fire. Each of these elements was in itself perishable. Left to themselves, they would hasten to dissolution, and the man, as an entity, would be annihilated. This catastrophe, however, could be averted through the piety of the survivors. The decomposition of the body could be prevented, or at least suspended, by the process of embalming; prayers and offerings saved the other elements from the second death and secured for them all that was necessary for the prolongation of their existence. The influence upon the arts of these religious beliefs is interesting to note. Scenes of harvesting, hunting, and similar episodes connected with the offering of food were painted or carved upon the tomb walls, generally for an utilitarian purpose. Through the recitation of prayers and magic formulae, the pictured semblances of food became reality and saved the hungry Ka from annihilation in case actual offerings should fail him. In the same way, portrait statues were placed in tombs to provide a semblance of the deceased to which the Ka could return were the actual body destroyed. These instances are perhaps sufficient to show us how closely art was related to religion in ancient Egypt.
| Pre-Dynastic Period about 4000-3400 B.C. | |||||||||
| Accession of Menes and Beginning of Egyptian History 3400 B.C. | |||||||||
| Early Dynastic Period, I and II Dynasties 3400-2980 B.C. | |||||||||
Old Kingdom
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Transitional Period
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Middle Kingdom
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Hyksos Period
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The Empire
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Late Dynastic Period
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Saite Period
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| Persian Conquest of Egypt 525 B.C. | |||||||||
Persian Period
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| Ptolemaic Period. 332-30 B.C. | |||||||||
| Roman Period 30 B.C.-364 A.D. | |||||||||
| Byzantine (Coptic) Period 364-640 A.D. | |||||||||
| Arab Conquest of Egypt 640 A.D. |
The exterior of this wooden coffin is decorated with figures of gods and minor divinities in shrines, alternating with invocations to various divinities. The most interesting scene is that next the foot on the right side, showing the goddess Hathor in the form of a cow. Beside her is a suggestion of the Theban cliffs and the open door of her shrine, which was hewn in the mountain side. This very shrine was discovered on February 7, 1906, and in it intact was a life-size cult statue of Hathor as a cow. Hathor was supposed to receive the setting sun and to welcome the dead on the brink of the next world. The decoration of the interior of the coffin is bolder and more highly colored than the exterior. On the floor may be noted the large standing figure of Osiris of Busiris. Various divinities are represented surrounding him. On the sides of the coffin are three registers containing each three mummiform figures with human or animal heads; at the top is the soul of the deceased, represented as a human-headed bird. This coffin doubtless comes from Thebes. The absence of the cover makes it impossible to determine the ownership. The coffin was perhaps originally decorated in advance for a woman's burial, and held in stock for any burial. In one place, however, a man's titles are given, although the name is not recorded, so that possibly, before the decoration of the coffin was completed, it was adapted to the use of a man.
Standing figure of a woman, carved in wood, with traces of painting; found at Deir; a fine example of carving in Dynasty XII. An inscription on the base may be read: “Funerary offerings, beef, fowl (?), things (?), good and pure for the honorable Kai.” Doubtless a portrait statue. The pose, with one foot advanced and the arms held stiffly at the sides, is a familiar one in Egyptian art. Note costume details: the thick wig and the tight dress supported by two shoulder straps.
This bronze statuette represents the Goddess Neith wearing the crown of Lower Egypt; probably of the Saite period. An excellent example of votive bronzes, of which there is a considerable number in the collection. These statuettes probably served as votive or propitiatory offerings; that is to say, they were offered at shrines in gratitude for favors experienced or in the hope of winning favors to come.
[pg 27]Fragment of the funerary papyrus of the Priest of Amon, Jekhonsefonkh; part of a scroll buried with the deceased for his instruction in the afterworld; Dynasty XXI.
Ushabti, Dynasty XIX (?), part of the burial equipment of “The Lady of the House, the Chantress of Amon, Aay.” Ushabtiu were placed in the tomb to answer for the deceased when called upon to labor in the afterworld. The inscription reads: “To illuminate the Osiris, the Lady of the House, Aay, beatified in peace. He says: O this ushabti, if one be drafted to do all the labors which are performed in the underworld—the Osiris, the Lady of the House, Aay, beatified, in peace—to cultivate the fields, to irrigate the banks, to carry the sand of the east to the west, behold, there will be smitten down ...” Here the text, which is part of Chapter VI of the Book of the Dead, breaks off because the available space was filled. It omits final instructions to the ushabti to reply, should the deceased be drafted, “Behold, here am I!” and thereupon relieve the deceased Lady of the House of the onerous task of laboring in the fields.
Cover of a canopic jar used in the burial to contain the human viscera; if not earlier than the Empire period, to which it is attributed, it represents the genius Amset.
[pg 28]From left to right: spherical vase, Early Dynastic; kohl jar used to contain antimony or other preparations for the eyes, Dynasty XII or XVIII; the three vessels following are of the Empire period, Dynasty XVIII-XIX.
Bronze mirror, originally highly polished, probably of the Ptolemaic period. Note the lotus column serving as handle and the two sacred falcons at the side of the handle.
The sacred falcon below is a charm or amulet of the XII or XVIII Dynasty in polished gray stone.
Heart scarab, Dynasty XX or later. Inscription is a prayer from the Book of the Dead, adjuring the heart, over which the scarab was placed, not to bear false witness against the deceased at the time of judgment. The Horus eye is a beautiful piece of faience inlaid with stone and glass, probably of Dynasty XIX.