[1] The fueros of the Basques comprise certain franchises and privileges granted or upheld by ancient charters, and are their undoubted right, though sought to be ignored by Madrid statesmen. It was largely through his promises to re-establish their fueros, that Don Carlos enlisted the sympathy and support of the Basque provinces. The subject, however, is an intricate one, and is only alluded to incidentally.

[2] An amusing little instance of Spanish justice arose out of this:—Having refused to pay the fine, no further steps were taken for its recovery, nor to uphold the majesty of the law, until, long afterwards, the mulcted man's purse was stolen from his pocket in the bull-ring at P——. On his appearing to prosecute the thief, whose guilt was clearly proved, the Alcalde declined to restore the money, quietly pocketing the purse with the remark, "I think, Señor Caballero, this will just about settle the account between us!" This casual way of administering justice was amusing enough, and consoled one for the feeling of having been "bested."

[3] There is an excellent description of one of these tragic scenes in Borrow (Zincali, i., pp. 48, 49).

[4] In a subsequent chapter we give some account of the life—and death—of Vizco el Borje.

[5] See "El Bandolerismo," by El Excmº. é Ilmo. Señor Don Julian de Zugasti, late Governor of the province of Córdova (Madrid, 1876).

[6] We have seen an exception to this in the mountain villages of the Castiles, where, on fiesta nights, a sort of rude valse is danced in the open street.

[7] The sporting incidents here narrated occurred twenty years ago, viz., in March, 1872. This was the authors' first shooting expedition together: for which reason we place its record in the first chapter.

[8] Avetarda is old Spanish, the modern spelling being Abutarda.

[9] The grand secret of success in this sport (as elsewhere remarked) is to place the guns close up to the game. The means by which the primary object is attained can hardly be set down on paper—nothing but practice, quick and good judgment, and a sportsman's instinct will effect it. In more than one instance we have found a deadly line ambushed within 150 yards of the most watchful bustards, and on ground where, to a novice, the feat would certainly be set down as impossible.

[10] The expression "Bull-fight" is a very inadequate interpretation of the Spanish Corrida, or Fiesta de Toros, even in its modern form, and conveys no idea of the magnificent spectacular displays of the middle ages. Then, the national heroic life was but reflected in the arena, in scenes embellished with all the stately accessories and colouring dear to semi-Oriental minds. The mimic pageantry of to-day is but a relic of former grandeur.

[11] Spanish writers, however, jealous for the national origin of the sport, insist that the "Fiestas de Toros" were born in Spain, that there alone have they increased and flourished, and that in Spain will they continue while time lasts.

[12] On this point, Sanchez de Nieva writes ("El Toréo," published at Madrid, 1879):—"The Arabs were much given to bull-fighting, and highly skilled in the lidia, whether mounted or on foot. It must, however, be borne in mind that these encounters took place in Spain, and that the so-called Arabs were in reality Spaniards—the Moorish domination having then lasted for seven centuries. It may be stated, without fear of error, that nearly all the inhabitants of this country, after the first two centuries, were, though born in Spain, Arabs in origin."

[13] Attempts were made by other countries to imitate the Spanish spectacle. Italy, in 1332, celebrated a tauromachian festival which has left a sad record on the page of history. No fewer than nineteen Roman gentlemen, and many of lower rank, perished on the horns of the bulls. After this tragic event bull-fights were prohibited in Italy, though for a time revived by the Spanish in that country after their conquest of Flanders and the Low Countries.

[14] De Bedoya's "Historia del Toréo" (Madrid, 1850) gives Francisco de Romero as the first professional lidiador of the modern epoch.

[15] The better-bred animals are always the more harmless, if not molested.

[16] The following are some of the best known garrochistas of recent years: Señores Don Antonio Miura, Don Faustino Morube, Don Miguel Garcia, Don Guillermo Ochoteco, Don José Silva, Don Fernando Concha, Don Agusto Adalid, Don Angel Zaldos, Don Manuel Sanchez-Mira, Marques de Bogaraya, Marques de Guadalest, Don Frederico Huesca, Marques de Castellones, &c.

[17] The bull-fighters and their friends affect a language peculiar to the Plaza: a dialect of systematic construction. To acquire a knowledge of this "Jerga" (La Germania), with its idiomatic piquancy and raciness, is the aim of the "fancy" young men, the Flamencos of Southern Spain. To be in the circle of the popular bull-fighters, with its perilous female entourage, is considered chic by certain gilded youth. Flamenco-ism appears to find its beau idéal in the borderland which lies between the bizarre existence of the "torero" and the Gitano or gypsy. (See chapter on the Spanish Gypsy of to-day.)

[18] The mancha of Salavar in the Coto Doñana is an example of one of these green oases amidst barren, lifeless sand-wastes.

[19] These Godwits (Limosa belgica) are more common on passage earlier in the spring. We have seen flights of many hundreds in February and March. The Common Bar-tailed Godwit (Limosa rufa) we have never chanced to meet with here, either in winter or spring—only on its southern passage, in September.

[20] Kittiwakes and Black-headed Gulls in swarms during March and early April, whitening acres of water. The latter remained till perfect summer-plumage is attained (by March 21st). Little Gulls frequent: on two occasions (in February and March) observed in scores. Larus fuscus and L. argentatus were common in March, and on April 5th we obtained an adult of L. marinus in the marisma. Of British Terns, S. cantiaca and S. fluviatilis, were noticed in early spring.

[21] When first hatched, the legs of the young Stilts are quite short; but by mid-June are of medium length, pale clay-colour, and curiously swollen about the knee-joint. The upper plumage of the young at that date is mottled brown, irides brown. By the following January these young Stilts have acquired a black and white plumage; but the irides remain dark, and the legs a pale pink. The adults vary in the disposition of black and white in their plumage, especially on head and neck, and some few have the breast prettily tinged with roseate.

[22] A pair of the L. gelastes shot this day (together with some other of our Spanish specimens) are now set up in the Hancock Museum at Newcastle-on-Tyne.

[23] From the dates subsequently given, it would appear that the young camels are produced about the month of February, or perhaps earlier.

[24] With the possible exception of those stated to have been discovered in the Kum-tagh deserts of Central Asia by Col. Prejevalsky, the Russian explorer.

[25] Wild-bred cattle, many of them destined for the bull-rings of Jerez or Seville.

[26] The repugnance evinced by horses towards the camel was known ages ago. At the battle of Sardis (B.C. 546) this equine weakness was utilized by Cyrus in opposing to the Lydian cavalry a vanguard of camels (Herodotus, Clio, pp. 78, 80). A similar stratagem was proposed by Amurath I. at the decisive battle of Kossova between the Ottoman army and the Confederate hosts of Servia, Bosnia, and Wallachia, August 27th, 1389, but was abandoned in deference to the fiery impetuosity of Prince Bajazet and some supposed precepts of the Koran.

[27] The English language provides no word specially to designate a male goat. We have, therefore, fallen back on the word ram, which, though not strictly accurate, is the nearest available term.

[28] Horns from Nevada are thinner, more compressed laterally, and the ridges show the spiral curves less distinctly. It is, after all, the old question of what constitutes a species.

[29] The horns of the Spanish ibex rather resemble those of the burrell, or wild sheep of the Caucasus, &c., than typical ibex-horns.

[30] "In the Pyrenees," Sir Victor Brooke writes us, "they are rare, and live in the worst precipices I ever saw an animal in. They go into far worse ground than chamois, and are very nocturnal—never seen except in the dusk and early dawn, unless disturbed."

[31] The ibex of Asia Minor—a quite distinct species, Capra ægragus—appears, according to Mr. E. N. Buxton (Nineteenth Century, February, 1891, p. 261, et seq.), to have somewhat similar habits, frequenting the pine forests and lower wooded slopes of the hills, by preference to the treeless summits. But the Turkish mountaineer is a very different man to his Spanish representative, and appears utterly careless of the charms of the chase, seldom molesting the wild goats, whereas in Spain they are rarely left in peace while there is a chance of killing them.

[32] A previous expedition in Gredos had proved entirely blank, not an ibex being secured in a fortnight's shooting.

[33] The ibex are very fond of this shrub, which in summer has a red bloom; and the zone of the piornales is the lowest to which they descend, even in winter.

[34] It is worth mentioning, as showing the importance of the wind and the precarious nature of this pursuit, that on the former occasion a sudden change in the wind had destroyed all chance for the day, and rendered useless many hours' hard work and carefully-planned operations. Even a "flaw" in its direction is often fatal to success, so keen of scent is the cabra montés.

[35] From big game to butterflies is a far cry; yet, on the chance of having some entomological readers, we may mention the following Rhodopalocera observed in these Central Spanish sierras: On the wooded slopes and among the scrub, the speckled wood (Ægeria) and a large wall (? sp.) were common; so also was a small species of azure blue. A single orange-tip (Cardamines) was observed, and several of the handsome Melanargia sillius. A very small copper was perhaps Polyommatus virgaureæ, var. Miegii, Vogel, and of the clouded yellows, Colias phicomone, E., higher, and C. edusa and hyale, lower, were also observed. On the heights was a small orange-, or chestnut-coloured insect, very active, and quite unknown to us. A hairstreak (? Theckla roboris) and L. sinapis occurred in the lower woods, where the brilliant Gonopterix Cleopatra was also seen, as well as one or two examples of a large and very handsome insect, apparently of the Limenitis group—chequered black-and-white, probably L. Camilla, F. One should, however, be a specialist to identify these exotic species.

[36] Such place-names as Mom-Beltran de Lys, the Torre de la Triste Condesa, and others, seem to suggest tales of historic lore and legend, probably long since forgotten.

[37] The highest point of the Riscos appeared to be about 7,000 ft., and commanded a superb panorama of the whole Sierra de Gredos, with its towering peaks and snow-fields stretching away to their apex in the Plaza de Almanzor. With regard to altitudes, we here write with some uncertainty, as our aneroid, after being depressed to twenty-one inches, appeared to exhibit some irregularities, and had possibly suffered some internal or constitutional injury.

[38] We succeeded in taking several eggs of this bird in the crevices of a sheer crag, after a somewhat perilous climb. These eggs are very light-coloured; the ground colour is pale cream, faintly spotted with brown and dull greyish splashes.

[39] Specific names not guaranteed.

[40] We found a nest of the Sandpiper (Tolanus hypoleucus) with four nearly fresh eggs on May 23rd—Provincia de Santandér.

[41] This transformation of colour is well represented (though not designedly so) by the two plates at p. 88 of Dr. Bree's "Birds of Europe" (2nd ed.). The "Tawny Eagle" there figured might be a young Imperial of, say, two months old; while Aquila culleni, so far as colour is concerned, would do duty for the same bird at two years.

[42] Now in the Hancock Museum at Newcastle.

[43] The Rock-Martins' nests were fixed under the roof and upper ledges of the caves, not unlike Swallows'. Their eggs are white, slightly flecked with grey. At the same date (May 18th) we also obtained a nest of the Blue Rock-Thrush, with five beautiful greenish-blue eggs. The male, during the breeding-season, has a pretty habit of towering up in the air, singing merrily, then falling back among the rocks like a stone.

[44] Observed at this place and date a greater variety of butterflies than ever before in Spain—brilliant Painted Ladies and Fritillaries (?sp.); but most conspicuous were "yellows" of various kinds: Thäis polyxena and Colias edusa, large pale "sulphurs," some whole-coloured, others with bright orange-tips; in others, again, the orange adjoined the body. There were also many Heaths and Browns, Speckled Wood, Bath Whites, and many (to us) unknown species.

[45] One nest still contained an unfledged youngster. On my appearance at his abode the unsightly little brute at once disgorged a mass of carrion that necessitated an immediate retreat.

[46] Of the 8,529,600 separate rural properties which exist on the Spanish land-register, 2,729,600 are administered and cultivated for the account of their proprietors; and 800,000 are let at a rental, either in cash or "kind."

[47] Though no hay is made expressly, yet the sun-baked herbage, called pastos, of the fallows and winter grazings is practically equivalent to hay found ready-made.

[48] Taxation falls heavily enough on the farmer direct. Land-owners are asked by the State for about one-fourth of the rental. The tax on tenant-farmers is equally heavy, estimated by a cumbrous assessment, based on the number of draught-oxen employed, or the head of grazing stock. A large proportion of the taxation leviable is, however, evaded.

[49] The following table shows the production of cereals (in Spain) in a normal year:—

[50] A hectare is, roughly, about an acre and a half. A hectolitre is equivalent to two and three-quarter bushels.

[51] The large irides and general appearance of this species seem to indicate crepuscular tendencies, and an affinity—obsolete or evolvent—to the Strigidæ, which is recognized in its generic name, Circäetus, next to the Harriers. But, in fact, the affinity is more apparent than real, for the Serpent-Eagle is of purely diurnal habits.

[52] Some Kites (M. ictinus), which had been feeding on reptiles, had a most offensive smell. The beak of the male, in this species, is yellow to the tip; in the female, horn-colour. The kites all lay two eggs, on the bare sticks—only once, in each case, have we found the dual number exceeded, viz., M. ictinus, three young, on May 2nd; M. migrans, three eggs, on May 10th. We have found the eggs of the first-named as early as the closing days of March.

[53] Partridges commence this love-song as early as February. In March it is continuous at sunrise and towards dusk. Here is an attempt to syllable it:—

"Chŭck, chŭck ... churroùk, churroùk,
Chukàr, chukàr, chōŭk!"

[54] In Egypt the Grey-backed Crow (Corvus cornix) is almost exclusively the Cuckoo's dupe; in Algeria, Pica mauritanica.

[55] "The Zincali; or, an Account of the Gypsies of Spain." By George Borrow. 2 vols. London, John Murray, 1841.

[56] Whatever may have been their origin, their language demonstrates that the Spanish gypsies are not (as has been suggested) relics of the expelled Moors, Arabs, or Moriscos, with whose tongue theirs has no affinity. Many of the Rommany words appear to be of Sanscrit derivation.

[57] In speed of foot, the gitano lads carry off the palm, leaving all competitors behind in the rare athletic contests which have taken place in Southern Spain.

[58] These particulars are, however, given in nearly all Spanish diaries and almanacs.

[59] We do not encumber ourselves on these bird-hunting expeditions with tents, tressle-beds, indiarubber baths, and the other luxuries of the regular shooting campaigns. Sometimes, after sleeping in the cerrones, if no water was near, one's toilet was confined to a general "shake up," like a fox-terrier turning out from his mat, and we rode on till a hill-burn afforded a chance of a bath and breakfast.

[60] Our own experience on this point would not enable us to assert this fact so positively—indeed we have observed instances in which the reverse case appeared to obtain; but the circumstance has been stated to us by an ornithologist whose authority stands beyond question or doubt.

[61] Both my companion Ramon Romatez, and Juan Guarro y Guarro, as well as several of our other men, were independent yeomen, owning from 150 to 200 goats apiece, which they pastured on the slopes of the sierra. They were, however, glad to accompany us for the sum of eight reales (one shilling and eightpence) a day.

[62] Except at vintage-times the Alto Douro is almost uninhabited. Hence in early autumn, when work is plentiful, there occurs an extraordinary influx of labourers—men and women—many from considerable distances, and especially from the Spanish province of Galicia, flocking into the Alto Douro as the hop-pickers in September pour into Kent from the arcana of London, or as the Irish harvesters at that season flood the Midlands and North of England.

[63] The following are the constituents of the four different classes of soil of the Jerez vignobles, according to Don Simon de Roxas Clemente:—1st. Albariza, chiefly consists of carbonate of lime, with a small admixture of silex and clay, and occasionally magnesia. 2nd. Barros, composed of quartz or sand, mixed with clay and red or yellow ochre, which forms horizontal bands extending along the coast from the mouth of the Guadalquivir as far as Conil. 3rd. Arenas, or pure quartz ore sand. 4th. Bugeo, which contains argillaceous loam, mixed with carbonate of lime, some quartz ore sand, and a large proportion of vegetable mould.—"History of Modern Wines," by Dr. Alexander Henderson, p. 190.

[64] Dr. Henderson makes a contrary statement in his "History of Ancient and Modern Wines," p. 190 (London, 1824); but this we imagine must be attributed to a slip of the pen, and is, in any case, erroneous.

[65] Nowhere can these spectacles be witnessed with greater ease, or to better advantage, than on the Lower Guadalquivir, where, from the deck of our vessel, we have counted as many as forty or fifty barbones within easy reach of a field-glass. It is, however, only in the first hours of daylight that they are thoroughly "on view."

[66] Col. Irby gives this love-note as "prut, prut." Mr. Howard Saunders describes the rising and falling movement as more of a jump, which may very likely be a more correct definition; or, perhaps, both actions are executed. At the distance at which observations are possible, it is difficult to be quite certain what one sees.

[67] It may be appropriate here to add that the curious chamæleon, which is found nowhere else in Europe, is abundant in this district. It is not, however, seen in mid-winter. Another remarkable reptile is the lobe-footed gecko (Platydactylus muralis), which swarms about rocks and old walls. Both the reptiles and insects of Spain would probably richly repay further research.

[68] Since the above was written we have acquired the sporting rights over parts of these great marshes, and have engaged the worthy wildfowlers, Vasquez and Vergara, as keepers. Many pleasant days have we spent with them and their ponies. But of this sport a fuller account will be found in another chapter.

[69] That is, with two men behind the pony. We have since then, going single-handed, occasionally succeeded in outwitting even the Grey Lag.

[70] Garganeys are said to be the swiftest of all the duck-tribe, and to lead the migrating flights, both on their southern journey and also when steering north. Hence their name: "capitanes."

[71] In the previous year (1888) the opening bag was 37 geese, 373 ducks, and 46 various.

[72] The best day, walking for snipe, December 4, 1889, produced 232 snipe—six guns.

[73] This failure of the gunning-punt in Spain is the more inexplicable as in Egypt—the only other southern land in which, to our knowledge, this sport has been attempted—the very reverse was the case. An Englishman who took out a punt to the Nile abandoned the pursuit, as he found no difficulty in taking the craft to such close quarters that he bagged fifty to sixty each shot. Similarly, Lord Londesborough found the fowl in the Egyptian lagoons so easily accessible that, after securing 2,290 geese and 1,800 ducks in the season (sixty-four geese being his biggest shot), he abandoned further operations as lacking the one essential condition—that of difficulty. (Badminton Library.—"Shooting: Moor and Marsh," pp. 261-2.)

[74] Our biggest shot with the cabresto-ponies realized 74 ducks and teal; guns, a single 4-and a double 8-bore.

[75] The following note, being made from experience and on the spot, may be worth inserting:—In driving large game of any kind, be careful to make a good screen: there is always time to build up a breastwork either of branches, or rocks, or snow, or whatever the material at hand may be. If placed behind a thick bush, cut a deep nick into it with the hunting-knife, so that one stands well back—i.e., right into the bush, and appears to form an integral part thereof. How glad one is of these little precautions when game appears!

[76] It may, however, fairly be added that we were using, in those days, spherical bullets and the old cylinder smooth-bores—always erratic in ball-practice beyond forty or fifty yards. All that is now superseded by the introduction of the Paradox rifled gun (Col. Fosbery's patent), one of the prettiest inventions and most remarkable improvements in modern gunnery. With this beautiful weapon, which shoots ball as accurately as a rifle, and comes to the eye as handy as a game-gun, no distracting doubts need flurry one's aim at flying stag or boar within one hundred yards; even snap-shots in covert are now a luxury instead of the nerve-and temper-trying ordeal of yore. Such is the power and penetration of the hollow-fronted conical ball that we have "raked" a stag from stem to stern at one hundred and forty yards, the bullet entering his chest, and lodging near the root of the tail almost undamaged, after traversing the whole of the animal's vitals. For all Spanish large game, the 12-bore Paradox, weighing 7¼ lbs., and burning 3½ drs. of powder, is an admirable weapon, and, except for ibex and deer-stalking in the higher cordilleras, where very long shots may be necessary, it almost takes the place of the heavier express rifle.

[77] "Quien come carne de Grulla, vive cien años."

[78] These old and cunning stags do not always break covert so readily, as the following incident will show. We had tracked a hart for some miles, till eventually the trail led towards quite a small clump—not two acres—of 20-ft. gorse and tree-heath with an outer fringe of bamboo, all growing on dry ground, though entirely surrounded by flood-water. Every indication pointed to the stag having couched in this congenial covert; the hunters, however, traversed it without moving game. The water-weeds outside showed no sign of the stag having passed onward: but, to make sure, we took a wide cast on the drier ground beyond, separating so as completely to encircle the mancha. No vestige of a trail could be seen; clearly the beast still lay in the recesses of his island-sanctuary. The gun once more took up his position to leeward, and the covert was beaten again—this time more effectively, for presently, amid crash of branches and bamboos, the stag, which had been lying like a hare in its form, bounded out across the shallow marsh—with the usual result!

[79] Where exact dates are mentioned in the following table they refer to the earliest or the latest occurrences, respectively, that have come under our notice.

[80] Corrigendum:—Though we have stated (p. 243) that the Raven breeds late in Spain, it also does so early, for Mr. Saunders writes us:—"At Malaga it was nesting by mid-February, and near Baza I watched a pair feeding their young between 15th and 20th March."