CHAPTER V. Climate and Immigration.

The population of Guatemala according to the general census of the Republic taken at the beginning of 1904 was 1,842,000. This was the actual enumeration, but as there were many cases in which a complete account was not possible the inhabitants probably number 2,000,000. Of those enumerated by races 750,615 were Ladinos, and 1,091,519 were of the aboriginal race. The Ladinos are the descendants of the white race and of a mixture of European and Indian. The Indian population is principally engaged in farming and in small commercial enterprises in the interior. The Ladinos are much more energetic. The natives of the high and cold regions are the most vigorous.

For many years it has been the aim of the Guatemalan government to attract foreign immigration. Under President Estrada Cabrera's administration systematic measures for this purpose have been taken and the policy of encouraging immigrants and colonists, especially from the United States, has become a settled one. Practically one-half the fertile territory is yet uncultivated for want of tenants and there are many agricultural industries which require a very small amount of capital while they assure independence to those who follow them.

The first question asked is whether the natives of the temperate regions, Europeans and North Americans, can live and work in the climate. The answer is that there are large areas suitable for them where they may engage in coffee-growing, dairying, stock-raising and similar occupations.

The districts known as the Highlands or "Los Altos" are at an average elevation of 5,000 feet and comprise some of the most inviting sections of Guatemala. The uplands include Quezaltenango, Solola, Quiche, Huehuetenango, Totonicapam, and San Marcos.

The Three Zones.

Usually in describing the country it is divided into three zones. The tierra caliente, or hot lands, comprise the coast of the Atlantic and the Pacific ocean.

The tierra templada, or temperate zone, covers the central plains which range from 2,000 to 5,000 feet above the sea level.

The tierra fria, or cold zone, comprises the highlands as noted above.

The year is divided into two seasons, the winter or rainy season lasting from May till October, and the dry season. The hottest months are March and April and the coldest ones December and January. Except along the coast the average temperature throughout the year is about 72° Fahrenheit. The climate on the coast is rendered endurable by the refreshing sea breezes which blow for several hours every day. Many people who live in the uplands in the rarefied atmosphere find it agreeable and beneficial to their health to spend a few weeks every season on the coast lands. The climate would be hot and moist except for the variations caused by the mountains which oppose themselves not only to the prevailing winds but also in rainfalls to the humidity of the air. The winds are from the east and north, although along the Pacific coast there are southern and southwestern winds at certain times in the year. In regard to rainfall the general rule is that the regions confronting the moist winds from the ocean have abundant precipitation while those defended by mountain ranges from the sea winds are dry.

The climate taking the country as a whole is an unusually healthy one. Fevers are not common and when they exist are confined to the warm and humid coast regions. No peculiar climatic disease exists in Guatemala and the country rarely suffers from epidemics. This is largely due to the strict sanitary measures which are enforced by the government.

A Poetical and Practical Description.

The following account of the climate in popular language is given by a well-known authority:

"The territory of the Republic belongs to the torrid zone comprised among the intertropical countries which are exempt from the rigorous winters of the countries of Europe, North and South America, and the Far East. The vegetation which droops in the dry season recovers a marvelous exuberance in the season of the rains. In every part it is encountered then rehabited in the most splendid garb of nature. The tropical countries at this period certainly are the motherland of all the plants which are cultivated throughout the world when as in the case of our Republic there are hot, temperate and cold zones in which the vegetation is perpetual and flourishes in the regions which possess perennial springs of flowing water to moisten the cultivated lands in the season of the drouths.

"The knowledge of the climates is of the highest importance for the agriculturist. It is his guide in the experiments for acclimatizing exotic plants which he seeks to introduce into his properties.

"The climate of a locality varies through the background of the mountains, through its sloping direction, its nearness to the sea, to the lakes, and to the selvas; through the direction and the forces of the periodical winds.

"Setting out from the low coastlands and ascending to the regions of the Altos or highlands, the naturalist admires successively the exuberant vegetation of the tropics and that of the cold countries.

"On account of the topography of the territory we have in the different zones of the Republic different climates characterized by our two seasons—that of the rains, our winter, and that of the dryness, our summer; characterized too by the intensity of the heat in the low zones of the coasts and by the crisp cold in the high plateaus of our mountains; by the force and duration of the periodic winds of the Northwest which in certain regions of the Republic blow with a violence harmful to agriculture.

"The temperature in the low zones fluctuates between 26° and 35° centigrade, averaging 28°. In the zones ranging from 3,000 to 5,000 feet above sea level the temperature fluctuates between 16° and 24°, the average being 20° to 22° centigrade. In the high zones or cold lands the temperature varies from 8° to 15°, the medium being 12° or 13°. In these zones from December to the end of March the temperature drops during the night to 1° centigrade and other times to 3° or 4°.

"The rains commence in May or June and continue until the middle of November. They are most violent from July to October. In the months of September and October there are sometimes storms and copious rains which last almost continuously from one to two weeks.

"Heavy dews are numerous and at times very copious in the summer in the low zones close to the sea, the lakes and the big marshes and also in the higher zones through the condensation of the vapors which absorb the sun's rays and become more condensed on reaching the colder regions of the atmosphere.

"The northeast winds are periodical and blow almost without interruption throughout the summer and with great violence on the coasts of the north and in the eastern sections of the country. The winds on the south coast are much milder and those in the western sections are insignificant.

"Under this drouthlike action the vegetation withers in the hot and dry zones. It flourishes most in the districts which possess perennial springs of running water for fertilizing.

"In the season of the rains there are strong hurricanes of southern winds which cause damage to agriculture, but happily they are not frequent.

"From the description of the varied climates of the Republic it will be seen that they are adapted to the cultivation of the richest tropical plants and for all the agricultural and industrial produce which is cultivated in the cold and temperate zones of the entire world.

"Besides, its vegetative season is one of perpetual cultivation, and in the plantations which possess water for irrigating the cultivated lands three crops a year can be raised in the hot zones as well as the temperate regions, and two crops of the cereals, wheat and Indian corn, in the cold regions; that is to say, the feeding of 30,000,000 inhabitants is possible besides fruits for a very extensive exportation."

Aids to Agriculture.

In a country so largely agricultural as Guatemala is the measures for the encouragement of farming may be taken as a means of judging the interest shown by the government. On this point President Estrada Cabrera in a recent message said:

"Agriculture as the prime factor of our richness has been the object of special attention during the last seven years of my administration. In order to broaden and improve it there has been established in the capital the General Department of Agriculture and in the districts and municipalities Boards for the same purpose. This Department has been authorized to publish a periodical The Bulletin of Agriculture which is given over exclusively to important farming studies. Seeds and plants have been brought from other countries and distributed among our farmers in order to establish new sources of production. Strict orders have been issued to secure the cultivation of the largest areas possible and also for establishing common seed grounds. Regulations have been made for the exploitation of rubber. In every possible manner the importation of farm tools and agricultural machinery has been facilitated. Contracts have been made for the exploitation of the woods in the forests of the north. Schools of agriculture have been created in order to further the study of these subjects by the issue of special bulletins under the direction of the Department of Agriculture."

Leading Points of Immigration Law.

A general immigration law was passed several years ago which has been supplemented by other laws since that time. At the outset immigration contracts with the Chinese are prohibited and the latter are not to be accepted as immigrants. The purpose of this is to insure white immigration and to prevent cheap coolie labor of a temporary character interfering with settlers who wish to establish themselves permanently. Immigrants are described as those foreigners having a profession, occupation or trade, whether day laborers, artisans, workingmen in factories, farmers or professors, who give up their own homes to come and settle in Guatemala and accept their transportation to be paid either by the Guatemalan government or by an immigration company. Immigrants also include the foreigners whose transportation is not paid by the government or by private companies. The wearing apparel and household furniture, tools, domestic animals and other possessions of immigrants are entered at the custom-house free of duty.

An important provision authorizes the government to grant gratuitously to immigrants lots of public lands in certain districts provided that the immigrants bind themselves to cultivate within two years the third part of the land granted. For this purpose zones of tillable land are set apart in the districts named.

Immigrants are exempted for a period of four years after their arrival from service in the construction or repair of the public roads and from the payment of municipal taxes. They are also exempted from military service except in the case of foreign war. They enjoy all the rights and privileges granted by law to Guatemalan citizens.

Public Lands for Settlers.

Under a general law a body of official engineers was created for surveying and distributing the uncultivated public lands and fixing the prices therefor. The price varies according to the nature of the land, whether it is for grazing, raising cereals; whether capable of raising sugar, banana, etc.; whether adapted to coffee and cotton, or whether it contains forests. Public lands may also be granted to immigrants gratuitously. Information on these points can be had through correspondence with the Department of Agriculture called "Dirección General de Agricultura," in Guatemala City.

President Estrada Cabrera's land policy has been directed especially to prevent great areas from being kept out of cultivation. He has dictated many measures with the purpose of breaking up the huge estates that often are uncultivated for want of capital and making them productive through the encouragement of small capitalists or farmers.

The general system of highways and cart roads as well as of the railroads has been devised for this purpose.

With regard to colonization and immigration the policy of securing the benefit of the favored soil to settlers has been indicated in the correspondence with various companies and individuals. In a report by the Director of Agriculture he declared that immigration from North America would be very pleasing to Guatemala and would strengthen the cordial relations existing between the two countries. That the immigrants will be well received he was assured. Their practical character would be especially valuable in developing the resources of the country. The Director, however, called attention to the fact that in many places of the country the geological conditions were not similar to the prairies of the United States where in the beginning very much could be accomplished on a large scale by machinery. In many of the districts open to settlement in Guatemala much of the work of clearing would have to be done by hand. That is one reason why encouragement is given to the individual settlers instead of to companies.

To broaden and strengthen the present immigration law the Department of Agriculture has recommended that certain lands be thrown open to settlement on the following conditions:

1. The government shall make the plan for the colony dividing the lands into lots of one caballeria (112 acres).

2. The settler shall take immediate possession of the lot which is granted him.

3. The government shall aid the removal of the colonists from their present place of residence to the point where they intend to settle. This aid to be extended under conditions which will insure its repayment.

4. The colonists on taking possession of their land shall obligate themselves to begin cultivating some of the following articles: rice, corn, beans, coffee, cacao, vanilla, rubber, cotton, hemp, etc.

5. The government shall designate from among the colonists some one who shall give general instruction with regard to the farming.

CHAPTER VI. International Relations.

Friendly relations with all countries, both neighboring and distant, is a leading point in President Estrada Cabrera's programme. The relations of Guatemala with the United States are particularly close and cordial.

In his annual message President Estrada Cabrera said:

"It is well known that the grand Republic of North America always has shown the most sympathetic regard for our country and the earnest effort of my government has been to strengthen the ties of friendship which unite the two nations. With this feeling existing there has been achieved during the period since 1898 the most flattering results, so that it can be confidently stated that never before have the relations between Guatemala and the United States reached so great a degree of cordiality as to-day, and it may be said that never has any cause of discord between the two governments been so remote as now. The death of the illustrious President McKinley, which was felt so deeply in Guatemala, and the advent into the Presidency of Mr. Roosevelt in no way interrupted the progress of affairs with our Republic and those which were pending followed their tranquil course towards a satisfactory arrangement."

The Secretary of Foreign Relations in his annual report said:

"Motives analogous to those which in foreign governments have caused congratulation over the re-election of Señor Estrada Cabrera as President of Guatemala have made it pleasing that the government of this Republic on its part could extend its congratulations over the re-election in the United States and Mexico respectively of Messrs. Roosevelt and Diaz, two eminent statesmen whose conciliatory policies are well known, as likewise their sympathetic regard for Guatemala. The continuation of these illustrious personages in power is considered by this government as a guaranty of the increasing cordiality of the relations of Guatemala with them and it has also enabled at the same time to be placed in evidence with all sincerity the satisfaction which has been produced by their re-election in their respective countries."

These are correct statements, for the sentiment of profound sympathy and admiration which President Estrada Cabrera and the whole people of Guatemala entertain for President Roosevelt and for the American people are very marked. For President Roosevelt on account of his grand traits of character, of mentality and of heart and the spirit of humanity, justice and rectitude which make of him the chief magistrate most conspicuous, most respected, most popular and most cherished of the present day; and for the American people on account of their intelligence, their enterprising disposition and their unceasing labors for progress, which have gained for them so pre-eminent a place among all the nations of the earth as one of the grandest, most nourishing and most powerful.

Adherence to the Hague Peace Principles.

These quotations indicate the sentiment of Guatemala towards the two countries with which geographically and otherwise it is most closely allied. Further evidence of the friendship for the United States and of the desire to sustain its policies of international peace were afforded in the promptness with which President Roosevelt's suggestion of a second Peace Conference in The Hague was accepted. With regard to the United States the Secretary of Foreign Affairs stated:

"Knowing the importance of our relations with the great American nation it was a grateful duty to send a special mission to Washington with the sole object of congratulating President Roosevelt. For the discharge of this function Señor Jorge Muñoz was selected and he discharged it with entire satisfaction to the government. This mission having been disposed of he was accredited permanently as Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary.

"Inasmuch as it was not one of the ancient nations of Europe, but a young and virile Republic, the strongest in America, which launched the project through its distinguished President of a second Hague Conference to perfect and complete the works of the first one in favor of universal peace, it is to be hoped that this effort will be seconded by all the countries of the civilized world and that at no distant time when experience shall have shown the deficiencies in the conclusions adopted by previous Congresses those which may be adopted in the coming Peace Conference will be more efficacious for the success of the humanitarian and praiseworthy end which the United States proposes."

Guatemala previously had given its adhesion to the principles of arbitration promulgated under The Hague Convention. It was represented in the Second International American Conference held in Mexico 1901-1902, and the various treaties and recommendations made by that Conference were ratified or endorsed as in the case of the other signatory governments. The action taken by the government of Guatemala on the respective conventions and recommendations was officially transmitted to Señor Mariscal, Secretary of Foreign Relations of Mexico, in accordance with the resolution of the Conference.

Pecuniary Claims Arbitration.

Among the treaties promulgated by the Pan-American Conference in Mexico was one relating to pecuniary claims. This required the ratification of five governments in order to make it effective. Guatemala was one of the first to give its formal adhesion to this convention. This treaty was ratified by the United States Senate and promulgated by the Department of State from Washington in the spring of 1905, so that United States citizens can now claim its benefits. The treaty consists of five articles. Under its terms the high contracting parties agree to submit to arbitration, through the Hague Court, all claims for pecuniary loss or damage which may be presented by their respective citizens and which cannot be amicably adjusted through diplomatic channels and when such claims are of sufficient importance to warrant the expenses of arbitration.

By virtue of Article 26 of the convention of The Hague the high contracting parties agree to submit to the decision of the Permanent Court of Arbitration established by that convention all controversies which are the subject-matter of the Treaty unless both parties should prefer that especial jurisdiction be organized according to Article 21.

If for any cause the Permanent Court of The Hague should not be opened to one or more of the high contracting parties they obligate themselves to stipulate in a special treaty the rules under which the tribunal shall be established as well as its forms of procedure.

In 1902 the administration of President Estrada Cabrera negotiated and the National Assembly ratified an agreement with Germany, Belgium, France, England, and Italy, which disposed of many subjects that had been in controversy.

Spain, the United States and Mexico did not enter into the agreement because those governments preferred to postpone the claims of their citizens until the industrial crisis was over and the financial conditions were improved. Since that time a number of claims have been adjusted satisfactorily. President Estrada Cabrera stated in a recent message that there were no claims at the present time which were weighing upon the national treasury. These matters having been arranged satisfactorily he said that no subject had arisen which could alter the friendly relations with the countries of Europe. This friendship was shown in the tribute paid by the Diplomatic Corps on New Year's day. Subsequently the governments of Germany and France had shown especial consideration by conferring on the President the Order of the Red Eagle and of the Legion of Honor respectively.

With Mexico the relations of Guatemala have been cordial since the boundary dispute was settled in 1895. Recently the commercial relations, on account of the construction of the Pan-American Railway through Mexican territory to the Guatemalan border have required the establishment of various consulates in important places in Mexico, and the exequaturs have been granted by the Mexican government.

1. To maintain peace is the principal objective of our government, not only because it is a necessity for the various peoples, but also because it imposes itself as a duty which all Spanish American nationalities should fulfil. For this reason we firmly believe in the proposition to overcome in Central America every obstacle that may stand in the way of peace and we will put forth our strongest efforts to frustrate the schemes of those who seek to sow distrust and jealousy among us impelled as they are by the spirit of ambition or disorder.

2. The strict compliance with the international compacts which bind us shall be the test to which we submit our acts so that every effort to the contrary will be vain and barren since it is necessary to recognize that the generality of the labors of the enemies of each administration tend to no laudable ends but rather are the work of selfish egotists, of personal enmities or the aberration of unbalanced judgment.

3. We do not hesitate then in declaring that whatever scheme of discord, subversive attempt, or suggestion which proposes to break our loyal friendship shall receive no support among us because the sincerity and firmness of our relations as representatives of the peoples whom we serve are and always will be affirmed in this solemn agreement, which we make at the instance of Central America; an agreement which is the fruit of the efforts we have made as public men on different occasions.

4. We expect that all good citizens will give us in the sense indicated their patriotic co-operation inspired in ideals of peace and fraternity and contributing by supporting us in this accord to place an end to the discord which the enemies of the public tranquillity cause. And also upholding the liberal and progressive policy which governs our acts.

CHAPTER VII. The Land of Travel and History.

Guatemala is a fascinating country for the traveler and visitor. Antiquarians, deep delvers in the majestic monuments of the long forgotten past, seek in the myths, the traditions, the temples and the ruins the riddles of prehistoric civilization. Modern tourists traveling as they will be able to do within a short time by railway from New York or San Francisco to the very heart of Guatemala may lose themselves in admiration of the sublime scenery, the lovely landscapes of valley and mountain lake and forest (the Indian name for Guatemala means abounding in trees), volcanic caps, giant outlines, and cloud-clad craters. Everywhere they will encounter that diversity which is the chief attraction of natural scenery. They will find also superimposed on the prehistoric Indian civilization the charm of Spanish architecture, customs, character and institutions.

Men of the stamp of President Estrada Cabrera who are engaged in the material upbuilding and the political progress of the country may prefer to talk of its agriculture and commerce, its opportunities for the energetic and resourceful people of the northern regions rather than to discuss its picturesque ruins audits fascinating history. Yet they would not have these subjects neglected. Hence the traveler and the tourist always are welcome, and whether they be deeply learned scientific investigators or mere birds of passage seeking novelty every provision is made to aid them in their travels.

Nature's Bold Hand.

In the very accurate and complete physiographic description of Guatemala contained in the report of the Intercontinental Railway Survey the following description is given of the great chain of volcanic cones and peaks which add so greatly to the bold picturesqueness of the country.

"The Pacific coast extends generally from the northwest to the southeast. From the sea the ground rises with a very gentle slope inland for almost 25 or 30 miles when the country becomes broken by the lava foothills of the volcanoes which extend from one end of the country to the other and which stand like a giant wall between the coast and the interior. Beginning at the Mexican boundary the line of volcanoes extends nearly parallel to the coast. Back of this is a plateau limited on the other side by the Continental Divide and much broken by spurs which unite the volcanoes with the Divide and the deep valleys between the spurs. The plateau is drained by rivers which run to the sea through the deep canyons between the volcanoes. The Continental Divide begins with the volcano Tacana and making a semicircular bend to the north and east rises again in the volcano Tajumulco. From this point its general direction is easterly as far as the Cerro Tecpam. Tacana and Tajumulco are the highest points on this are being respectively 13,334 and 13,814 feet above sea level. From Tajumulco to near Totonicapam the general altitude of the Divide is about 9,000 feet, the most prominent peaks being the Cerro Cerchil 11,830 feet, and the Cerro Calel 10,813 feet. From Totonicapam to Cerro Tecpam the general elevation of the Divide is about 10,500 feet with one peak, the Cerro Quiche of 11,160 feet. From Cerro Tecpam 10,050 feet, the Divide turns to the southeast and drops to a general elevation of about 7,000 feet, crossing the plateau and rising again in the Cerro Santa Maria Cauqué. Following the hills of Mexico, it crosses the plain near Guatemala City, the suburb of Guarda Viejo, 5,060 feet, being on the Divide."

The heights of other principal volcanoes are given opposite:

Variety in Geological Structure.

In the geological structure of the country unusual variety of character is shown. The quarternary formation, aluvium and diluvium, covers the greater portion of the Pacific coast from the foot of the mountains to the sea. The same formation is also observed in the neighborhood of Guatemala City, the valley of the Passion River, Puerto Barrios and various other localities on the Atlantic Slope.

The tertiary formation and particularly limestone covers the entire Department of Peten. Furthermore, limestones and dolomites of the upper cretaceous age are noted from La Libertad toward the Usumacinta River and toward British Honduras. In the localities of San Luis and Santa Bárbara there are tertiary limestones and sandstones of Eocene and miocene ages.

The limestones and dolomites of the upper cretaceous age are also found in various localities mixed with tertiary limestone and sandstone as well as conglomerates, dolomites, and limestones of the lower cretaceous age. In other sections they are mixed with limestones and dolomites of the upper carboniferous age mingled with slate, sandstone and pudding stone. The latter formation is found in other sections with precarboniferous limestone and also with crystalline limestone of the azoic age.

The tertiary formation is followed by an azoic formation of gneiss, mica slate, and phylada with large intrusions of granite. A kind of horn-blend slate has been observed in some parts of Izabal.

The eruptive formations are composed of porphyry in the north and northwest; of diorite, obsidian, rhyolite, and dacite and of trachyte, together with basalt, rhyolite, obsidian and granite in other sections. The eruptive formations are further composed of basalt in Pacaya and several other volcanoes; and mostly of ambesite in the rest of the Cordilleras and the highlands.

For the present-day traveler who is interested in earthquakes and their effects and in the ruins of Spanish architecture, nothing more entertaining can be found than a visit to La Antigua, which can be reached from Guatemala City by a few hours' ride in carriage or on horseback. Antigua stretches through the beautiful and fertile valley which in the Indian language means dry lake because the tradition exists that in prehistoric times there was a fine sheet of water covering the land. The panorama which delights the eye from any elevated point of Antigua is glorious. The three volcanoes of Acatenango, Agua (water) and Fuego (fire) lose their majestic combs in the clouds. In every direction spread fertile fields with an infinite number of coffee and sugar plantations in every state of production. The borders of the city are bathed by two charming rivers, the Pensativo and the Portal. In the immediate neighborhood are hygienic baths of pure crystalline water.

Prehistoric Ruins and Famed Lake Atitlan.

Many volumes have been written about the prehistoric ruins of Guatemala and especially of Copan. One of the most recent and most sumptuously illustrated is that by Anne Cary Maudslay and Alfred Percival Maudslay entitled "A Glimpse at Guatemala." It was published in London. In this book Professor Maudslay gives the following description of a visit to the ruins at Quiriguá:

"The ruins, which are completely hidden in a thick tropical forest, stand about three-quarters of a mile from the left bank of the river Motagua and about five miles from the miserable little village of Quiriguá, from which they take their name. They consist of numerous square or oblong mounds and terraces varying from six to forty feet in height, some standing by themselves, others clustered in irregular groups. Most of these mounds were faced with worked stone and were ascended by flights of stone steps.

"The interest centers in the thirteen large carved monoliths which are arranged irregularly round what were probably the most important plazas. Six of these monuments are tall stones measuring three to five feet square and standing fourteen to twenty feet out of the ground. The other five are oblong or rounded blocks of stone shaped so as to represent huge turtles or armadilloes or some such animals. All these monuments are covered with elaborate carving. Usually on both back and front of the tall monoliths there is carved a huge human figure standing full face and in a stiff and conventional attitude. The sides of the monuments are covered with tables of hieroglyphs, most of them in fairly good preservation. In addition to these tables of hieroglyphs there are series of square or cartouches of what appears to be actual picture writing, each division measuring about eighteen inches square and containing usually two or three grotesque figures of men and animals. The design of these picture writings shows considerable variety and freedom of treatment as compared with that of the large sizes human figures in the execution of which the artist seems to have been bound by conventional rules.

"The largest of the stone animals is perhaps the most remarkable of all the monuments. Its measurement is roughly a cube of eight feet, it must weigh nearly twenty tons and it rests on three large slabs of stone. It is shaped like a turtle and is covered with a most elaborate and curious ornament and with tables of hieroglyphics and cartouches of picture writing. The greater part of the ornament throughout these carvings is formed from the grotesque representations of the human face or the faces of animals, the features frequently so greatly exaggerated that it is most difficult to recognize them, but a careful examination enables one almost invariably to trace back to this facial origin what at first sight appears to be merely conventional scroll work. Forms derived from leaves or flowers are altogether absent; occasional use is made of a plaited ribbon and a very free use of plumes of feathers which are oftenmost gracefully arranged and beautifully carved. The fifteen monuments are divided into two groups; in one the figures are all those of men, in the other of women."

The same authors give the following vivid description of the famed Lake Atitlan:

"Our tent was pitched so close to the precipice that even from my bed I had a grand view into the Lake and could watch the black masses of the volcanoes looming clear-cut and solemn in the moonlight or changing from black to gray in the early dawn; then a rosy flush would touch the peak of Atitlan and the light creep down its side, revealing for a brief half hour every detail of cinder ridge and chasm on its scarred and wounded slopes until with a sudden burst of glory the sun rose above the eastern hills to strike the mirror-like surface of the Lake and flood the world with warmth and dazzling light. Every peak and mountain ridge now stood out clear and sharp against the morning sky, and only in the shadow of the hills would a fleecy mist hang over the surface of the lake far beneath us; then almost before the sun had power to drink up these lees of the night from the deep gap between the hills to the south, a linger of white cloud, borne up from the seaward slope, would creep around the peak of Atitlan only to be dissipated in the cooler air; but finger followed finger and the mysterious hand never lost its grasp until about noon great billowy clouds rolled up through the gap and the outpost was fairly captured although the crater itself often stood out clear above the cloudy belt. It was not, however, until the sun began to lose its power that the real attack commenced and the second column deployed through the gap on the southern flank of San Pedro and then from five o'clock until dark there followed a scene which no pen and no brush could adequately portray. The clouds seemed to be bewitched; they came down on us in alternate black and sunlit masses, terrible in their majesty; then rolled aside to show us all the beauty of a sunset sky, tints of violet that shaded into pink, and pink that melted into the clearest blue, whilst far away beyond the mountain seaward rolled vast billowy masses, first red and yellow and then pink fading to the softest green. Again and again would the clouds roll down upon us, the mist at times so thick that we could not see beyond a hundred yards; then just as quickly it would roll away and reveal a completely new phase of this ever shifting scene of beauty. As the sun sank behind San Pedro all turned again to dark and angry purple with contrasts and reflections like the sheen of a shot silk. Slowly the mists melted away with the fading daylight, Venus hung for a while like a splendid jewel in the air and the mountains turned again to shadowy masses outlined against a crystal sky."

Fascinating History Through the Centuries.

Historically every period of Guatemala is fascinating. Usually the history of the country is divided into the epochs of the aborigines, the Spanish Conquest, Independence, and the era of liberal governments.

Across the centuries the path of history can be traced. A book written in the 16th century by one of the aborigines of the time of the Conquest and called "Popol-Vuh" or "Book of the People," speaks of the Quiches, vigorous and hardy natives of the soil, forerunners of the Guatemalan people as having reached at that time a degree of advance which singled them out from among the other primitive inhabitants of America. Their religious system was in essence a kind of animal worship whose gods were personified by the fox, the coyote, and the wild boar to be soon reemployed through natural evolution by the forces of nature such as the heavens, the earth, and the sea. They left as evidences of their worship the multitude of monuments whose imposing ruins are preserved today. Pyramids which seem to bear traces of Egypt and characters indicative of a remote Asiatic origin; temples, such as the Temple of the Sun, of grand architecture; and the Palace, dwelling of the King, a holy being and the Supreme Arbiter. The latter is among the most notable of American antiquities and it causes admiration through the graduated pyramid, the triangular vault and the arch forming an harmonious whole. The Quiche civilization was an advanced one and its government was a theocracy in which the High Priest was both the Supreme Governor and inherited the name of the primitive god Votan. This theocracy was drawn from among the warriors while the people in complete servitude tilled the fields in order to sustain the worship and raise grand monuments and built numerous cities on the borders of the lakes and rivers.

Agriculture was well advanced. Cacao was cultivated with grand ceremonies and maize or Indian corn which was guarded with profound veneration because according to the ancient tradition man was formed from it. Cotton was also grown and brilliant garments woven from it which were dyed with cochineal and pigments formed from various plants. Tobacco was cultivated and yucca, beans, potatoes, etc. Various textiles were fabricated of the finest quality and many of the palaces and temples were hung with this tapestry.

Ceramics and various kinds of pottery were manufactured both for use and for ornament. The sciences and the arts were developed. The fame of the Quiche calendar exists today. The aborigines also understood painting, sculpture, and music. They made plumes and cloaks from the feathers of the birds and they wrote upon a paper prepared from the Amatl. Their language was liquid and possessed few inflections. It was the most perfect of the six hundred or more languages which the Spaniards encountered in the Isthmus of Central America. They had a literature of their own and from this fragments have been preserved notably the drama "Rabinal Achi."

Spanish Conquest and What Came After.

Guatemala was conquered by the Lieutenant of Cortez, Pedro de Alvarado. In April, 1524, he crowned his series of victories over the Quiches by routing them on the plains of Urbina, capturing and condemning to perish by hanging the two last Kings of the most powerful monarchy of Central America; Oxib-Queh and Beleheb-Tzy. In July of the same year he founded the city of Guatemala, although this was not definitely established until November, 1527.

Within a few years all the regions of Central America had submitted to the Spanish Crown and formed the Kingdom of Guatemala, to the capital of which was transferred in 1549 the Royal Audiencia or High Court. Guatemala was the head of Spanish power in Central America under the general term of the Spanish Captain Generalcy for two centuries.

During the two hundred and fifty years following the Conquest the country had three capitals in turn, all named Guatemala City. The first, founded by Alvarado, was on the very spot where he fought the battle which made him conqueror. The Indian kings of the South having heard of the exploits of Cortez in Mexico, sent an embassy to him which he received with distinction. He sent his favorite Lieutenant Alvarado back to take possession. Alvarado and his three hundred Spanish soldiers were nearly a year in making the journey through the forest. When the Indians opposed him he gave continuous battle and finally conquered. He destroyed their capital, razed the temple of their idols to the ground, and built on its site a church.

For seventeen years Alvarado kept the Indians at work building a new capital on the site of their old one. Then came the earthquake which destroyed the place and buried nine-tenths of the inhabitants under the ruins. A new location was found, but again, in 1773, by the eruption of Santa Maria the capital was destroyed. This is the group of picturesque ruins now known as La Antigua. With the destruction of this capital a third and final movement to the splendid situation in the Hermit Valley was made and the new capital which is the Guatemala City of today was established.

After years of struggle against the Spanish domination, beginning in 1811, Guatemala secured its independence, which was proclaimed September 15, 1821, when in place of the Kingdom of Guatemala there was established "A nation free and independent of every other nation." The history of subsequent years is interwoven with the events of other Central American countries. After many evolutions and disorders as well as revolutionary changes of government, the era known as the period of reform and the re-establishment of the liberties of the country began in 1871.

Chapters of Recent History.

The events which led to the adoption of the liberal Constitution of 1879, which is today in force, do not need to be recounted here. General Justo Rufino Barrios, who had been the leading spirit in the Liberal revolution, was a pronounced advocate of the union of all the Central American States in a single federal republic. He endeavored to accomplish this against the opposition of Salvador and was killed at the battle of Chalchuapa in 1885. He was succeeded by General Manuel Lisandro Barillas, who exercised the government from 1887 to 1892. After him came General José Maria Reyna Barrios, who during the first four years of his administration gave a good government and worked much for the prosperity of his country. In the last two years, however, through the bad counsels of selfish advisers foreign to his government he sought to extend the term of his authority and was resisted by successive revolutions. He was assassinated by a personal enemy of European nationality in February, 1898, and Guatemala was then left in the midst of a most disastrous condition, both industrial and political.

It was at this period that Manuel Estrada Cabrera, the lawyer, came into power and began the series of administrative reforms and measures for the material development of the country which have so vastly improved the condition of the people, have re-established credit and given assurance of further progress under continuous peace and tranquillity. It is these beneficial measures which have caused President Estrada Cabrera to be signalized as the chief of the modern emancipation of Guatemala in its policies, in its intellectual and moral advancement, and as the author of its present progress. Under his government order in administration has been secured, respect for the rights of all, material development in countless forms, the general improvement of the people and the most perfect harmony and equity in international relations have been obtained. It is the success of these policies, which is now assured, that makes Guatemala so clearly the country of the future and entitles Estrada Cabrera to rank with the most distinguished heads of State of the present day.