The pawn cannot move backwards nor sideways, but only forward along the "file" on which he stands. The pawn is also restricted in his power of taking. Thus any adverse piece or pawn standing on the adjacent squares to a pawn (other than forward diagonals) cannot be taken. Pawns placed as shown in section c or d of Fig. 3 could not take each other.

The pawn may also take "en passant," which means that if a pawn moves two squares at starting, thus "passing" an adverse pawn which could have taken it had it moved only one square, such adverse pawn has the option of taking it as if it had moved one square only; but the taking en passant must form the next move of the adversary. Thus in section c of the diagram, supposing the black pawn to have just moved from Q R 2 to Q R 4, it may be taken by the white pawn at Q Kt 5; the white pawn standing, after the move, at Q R 6. Such a move would be recorded thus: P takes P e.p.

Chess Notation.

It is necessary that the novice be thoroughly familiar with the original position of each piece, this being the foundation of what is called Chess Notation, or the system by which moves are recorded, and without which it would be impossible to convey written instruction in the game. Various systems are employed in different countries, but what is called the English notation is the only one with which our readers need trouble themselves.

Each square in the two outer rows is named (see Fig. 4) after the piece which occupies it, and the other squares by reference to these. For instance, the square upon which the King stands is called the

King's Square, or more shortly K sq., or K 1. The square in front of it is K 2; the next K 3, and so on throughout the file. In like manner with the other files. The pieces on the right side of the King are called the King's pieces—i.e., King's Bishop, K B; King's Knight, K Kt; King's Rook, K R; and the pieces on the left of the Queen are called Queen's pieces—i.e., Queen's Bishop, Q B; Queen's Knight, Q Kt; Queen's Rook, Q R. The same rule applies to the black pieces; so that each square has two names, as it may be necessary to describe it with reference to the one or the other player. Thus White's King's square would be Black's King's eight (K 8), whilst Black's King's square would be White's King's eight (K 8), and so on with all the other squares.

Method of Recording Games.

The following are the abbreviations in use in scoring with the aid of the English notation:

K = King; Q = Q; R = Rook; K R = King's Rook; Q R = Queen's Rook; B = Bishop; K B = King's Bishop; Q B = Queen's Bishop; Kt = Knight; K Kt = King's Knight; Q Kt = Queen's Knight; P = Pawn; ch. = check; dis. ch. = discovered check; e.p. = en passant; Castles, or o—o = Castles on the King's side; and Castles Q R, or o—o—o = Castles on the Queen's side. To take may be noted "takes," or shorter thus, ×; (!) indicates a good move; (?) a bad or indifferent move; + the better game; - the inferior game; = an even game. To familiarise himself with the system the reader is recommended to study, with the aid of the board, the following example, a "Ruy Lopez" game, recorded according to the English notation.

A variation of this is the "fractional" notation, in which White's move is recorded above the line, and Black's below the line—e.g.:

The moves may be recorded in columns or in lines, according to individual choice. "To" is frequently represented by a dash—e.g., instead of P to K 4, P—K 4. A single move of Black is recorded thus: 1. ... P to K 4 (or, P—K 4); 16. ... K B takes Kt (or, K B × Kt); the dots standing in lieu of White's preceding move.

Having mastered the notation, the student should next familiarise himself with—

The Technical Terms used in the Game.

The more important of these are as under:

Check and Checkmate.—The whole object of the game is the capture of the opponent's King, though, as we have said, the King is never actually taken, the game coming to an end when the next move, if made, would result in his capture. If the King is attacked, the attack must be accompanied with the warning, "Check." A check may be met in three different ways. The player may either interpose one of his own pieces^[75] (or pawns) between the King and the attacking piece; he may move it out of the range of the attacking piece; or he may take the attacking piece with the King or any other of his forces which may be available for that purpose. If he cannot resort to either of these three defences, he is checkmated, or more shortly, "mated," and the game is lost.

"Discovered" check is given when, by moving a piece, another piece is unmasked which attacks the adversary's King.

Drawn Game.—Beside the more decided issue of checkmate, there is another possible termination of a game—viz., the "drawn game," or "draw."

A draw ensues: 1. If neither side can give checkmate.

2. If both sides remain with King only, or with a single Bishop, or single Knight only in addition.

3. If both players repeat the same series of moves three times, thereby tacitly admitting that they are not strong enough to give checkmate, or that they do not intend to venture upon another line of play.

4. If a player under certain specified conditions is unable to give mate in fifty moves.

5. Through "perpetual check"; for instance, if a player, having otherwise a lost game, can save it by constantly forcing the opponent to move his King by repeated checks. In Fig. 5 Black is threatened with checkmate by Q to R 8, or Q to Kt 7. But, it being Black's move, he would play Kt to Kt 6: ch.; White must play K to R 2; Black returns to his old position again, checking, and as there is nothing to prevent his repeating these two moves ad infinitum, the game is drawn.

6. In case of a "stalemate"—i.e., when the player whose turn it is to move cannot make a move without violating the laws of the game. For instance, in Fig. 6, Black (having the move) would be "stalemate," as his King (his only piece) cannot move without placing itself in check, the white pawn guarding the squares Q B 8 and Q R 8, and the King guarding the squares Q B 7 and Q R 7.

Castling.—Once in the game the King has the privilege of making a double move in conjunction with either Rook. This move is called "Castling." In castling on the King's side, the King is moved to K Kt square, and the Rook is placed next to it on K B square; in castling on the Queen's side, the King is moved to Q B square, and the Queen's Rook placed next to it upon Q square.

The right to castle is subject to the following conditions:

1. That no piece of its own or the opponent's colour be between the King and the Rook with which the King is to be castled.

2. That neither the King nor the Rook with which it is to castle has yet moved.

3. The King cannot castle if in check, or into check; neither can he cross a square which is commanded by any of the opponent's pieces.

Command.—A piece is said to "command" a given square if it can take any adverse piece placed on such square.

Develop.—To move a piece from its original position is to develop it or bring it into play. The quicker the development of the pieces the better. If a player can concentrate upon a given point a greater number of pieces than his opponent is enabled to develop for its defence, he must obtain an advantage.

Double Pawn.—Two pawns on the same file. A "double pawn" is weaker than two pawns in the same row, because in the former case they must be independently defended, whilst in the latter case either can be made to defend the other.

En prise.—A piece or pawn is en prise if so placed as to be liable to be taken by any other. Sometimes the same phrase is applied to a piece or pawn insufficiently defended.

To Exchange.—Is to give up a piece or pawn for another of equal value.

The Exchange.—A player gaining a Rook for a minor piece (Bishop or Knight) is said to "win the exchange." His opponent loses the exchange.

Forced Move.—Is where the player has only one move at his disposal; for instance, in case of a check with a Knight, where the Knight cannot be taken, and the King has only one square to which he can move.

Fork.—This term is chiefly used where, by advancing a pawn, two pieces are attacked. (In Fig. 3, b, the white pawn forks K & B.) But it may also be used to express that any one piece attacks two others simultaneously.

Isolated Pawn.—Is a single pawn, the pawns of same colour on the right and left being off the board. A pawn is said to be "passed" when there is no pawn of the opposite colour which can bar its progress.

Gambit.^[76]—Any opening in which a pawn is sacrificed by the first player in order to obtain a quicker development of his pieces is called a gambit. The pawn so sacrificed is called the "gambit-pawn." A counter-gambit is where the second player sacrifices a pawn with a similar object.

J'adoube.—("I adjust") is said by a player, to inform his opponent, before touching a piece or pawn of his own or his adversary's, that such piece or pawn is only to be adjusted, but not played.

Pin.—A piece is said to be "pinned" if it is attacked by an adverse piece in such manner that, by moving the attacked piece, a more valuable piece would be "unmasked," and left en prise; but chiefly if it is unable to move because it guards the King from being in check.

Value of the Pieces.

The approximate value of the pieces, as they stand on their respective squares at the beginning of a game, is estimated to be as follows: Taking the pawn as unit, the value of the Knight is 3.05; of the Bishop, 3.05; of the Rook, 5.48; and of the Queen, 9.94. German authorities estimate (taking also the pawn as unit), Bishop = 3; Knight = 3; Rook = 4½; and Queen = 9. The King in the End game is worth 4. Obviously the value of piece or pawn changes as the game advances, according to the position it occupies for the time being. There are, however, general principles which hold good in a large majority of cases. For instance, two Bishops are more serviceable than two Knights in the End game.^[77] Bishop and Knight are also preferable to two Knights, but a single Knight is more serviceable, in most cases, in the End game than a single Bishop.

THE OPENINGS.

A game of Chess consists of three phases: the Opening; the Middle game; and the End game. It need not, however, pass through all three stages, but may come to a conclusion at either of them.

The Opening is the development of the pieces. A quick and judicious development of the forces is half the battle won. From a mistake in the beginning of a game—assuming both players to be of equal strength—it is difficult to recover. The Openings, therefore, should be studied carefully.

The Middle Game is entirely a matter of practice, and its proper management can only be acquired by experience. Both players are here thrown upon their own resources, as the analysis does not reach beyond the opening.

The End Game is a study in itself, and one which will repay the most careful attention. There are certain positions which occur frequently at the end of a game; these have been systematically arranged by eminent specialists, and may be committed to memory; but the larger number (like the Middle game) depend upon ingenuity and individual skill.

The Openings are divided into Open Games—i.e., where White plays 1. P to K 4, and Black replies 1. ... P to K 4; and Close Games—i.e., where White's first move is any other than 1. P to K 4. The Open Games will be first dealt with.

The first opening which we shall describe is the Giuoco Piano, "the slow, or steady, opening," so called because it is a quiet strategical development of the forces.

The game is presented to the reader just as if it were played over, and explained by the professor over the board. The reasons for each move are given in language adapted to the perception of the student who plays a game of chess for the first time.

THE GIUOCO PIANO.

This move allows most scope for the development of two pieces. P to Q 4 also allows this, but it gives less scope to the Queen.

The same observations apply to Black's first move.

The aim of the player being a quick development of his forces, it is advisable to bring each piece into play by attacking an adverse piece or Pawn immediately, if possible. The Kt here attacks Black's K P.

This move not only defends the attacked Pawn, but at the same time brings a piece into play, and thus establishes an equilibrium in the development. 2. ... Q or K 2, or 2. ... Q to B 3, would be unfavourable defences, because the former move would prevent the development of the K B, and the latter the sortie of the Knight, besides exposing the Queen to attack. It may be taken as a general rule that it should be avoided as much as possible to defend pieces of less value with pieces of greater value. Black could also play here 2. ... P to Q 3, which is called Philidor's Defence, or reply, by 2. ... Kt to K B 3, with an attack upon White's K P, which is called Petroff's Defence. These will be treated later on.

Clearing the King's side for castling, and posting the Bishop ready for attacking the present weakest point in Black's position—viz., the K B P; weakest because defended by the King only.

No immediate danger being apprehended, Black brings a piece into play. These three moves on either side constitute the opening called the Giuoco Piano, whatever be the moves that may follow.

Better than 5. ... B takes B, because in that case White would obtain an "open Bishop's file," and double his Rooks upon it after castling; and the "double pawn," which is in the majority of positions a weakness, is strong in the centre.

The object being to play this Knight to K B sq., and then to Kt 3. This could also be done if White had played 6. Kt to B 3, then Kt to K 2, and Kt to Kt 3. The manœuvre in the text is generally adopted, because if 6. Kt to B 3, Black could "pin" it with 6. ... B to R 4.

Intending to advance the Q P, and thus prepare the formation of a strong centre.

Threatening to attack and exchange White's Bishop, by playing upon his next move, if feasible, 8. ... Kt to Q R 4. He could not have done so before, because of White's reply, 8. B to Kt 5: ch., forcing the Knight back to B 3, or leaving it at R 4 out of play.

White, who does not want to exchange his Bishop for Knight, retires it, so that he may play, should Black attack it (with 8. ... Kt to R 4), 9. B to B 2.

In the Giuoco Piano it is not advisable for either player to castle early, and Black wisely makes a waiting move. He is now able to castle on either side, according to circumstances.

This move is strictly defensive. Black might also have played 9. ... Q Kt to Q sq., and then from Q sq. to K 3, which would have been a better manœuvre.

Black's defence is somewhat timid. At a previous stage he intended to exchange his Q Kt against White's B, and now when White "pins" the Knight with 11. B to R 4, he retires the Bishop, so as to avoid a double pawn. Now he has to prevent White's Knight from moving to B 5, attacking the Queen, but in doing so he weakens his King's position for the purpose of castling on the King's side. The student should bear in mind that these pawns are strongest in their original position.

The Bishop is better placed now at B 2. At R 4 it was, owing to the changed position, less useful. At its new post it strengthens the centre.

Black anticipates White's possible P to Q 4 by himself advancing.

Black now executes the manœuvre which was suggested at his ninth move. But it is not so good at this stage. The position is now as shown in Fig. 7.

It is always good to occupy an open file with a Rook.

Black cannot play 16. Kt to K 3, because he would thereby leave his K P en prise; he cannot castle, because then his K R P would be en prise; and if he were to return with the Kt to B 3, he would have lost a move. Therefore he has nothing better than to move his King into safety to B sq., and then to Kt 2.

To prevent Black from playing 18. ... B takes B; Q takes B, Kt to Kt 5, attacking the Queen.

Occupying the "open file" and defending the Bishop, so as to free his K Kt, which was before fixed, as it had to defend the Bishop.

It is, in the majority of these cases, better to take with the R P, because it gives an additional "open file" for the entry of the Rook.

White has now lost the attack, and is virtually on the defensive. He is obliged to move his Queen, because Black threatens 21. ... B takes P, discovering an attack upon the Queen with his Rook.

A good move, because White threatens, in case Black should exchange Bishops, to win the Queen with either Kt to B 5: ch., P takes Kt; Kt takes P: ch., K moves; Kt takes Q.

White, having failed in his attack, exchanges pieces, so as to simplify the position, hoping thus to be able to draw the game.

Doubly occupying the "open file," and so preventing White from moving 26. R to Q sq., and forcing his Rook off the "file," or an exchange of Rooks. But he would have done better to play 25. ... Q to Q 2, as White's next move will show.

Black has lost a move by not playing 25. ... Q to Q 2, for now he cannot move his Queen away from the protection of the Knight, and the Knight he cannot move, because his K B P would then remain en prise. If he moved 26 ... K to Kt 2, defending Kt and P, White would win his Queen by playing either Kt to B 5: ch., &c., as pointed out after Black's 23rd move; he is consequently forced to move as in the text.

To prevent Black from playing 27.... R to Q 7, which would be a powerful move, as it would attack White's pawns on the Queen's side.

(The position being highly instructive, it is illustrated in Fig. 8. White sacrifices a piece on the chance of Black not seeing the right defence. In which case the subtle threat is as follows—

	...	28.	P takes Kt
29.	Kt takes P	29.	Kt to Kt sq.

Defending the threatened R P.

30.

Q to Kt 3

...

And wins, as the mate with Q to Kt 7 cannot be prevented.)

Black would have done better not to take the Knight, but to play 28. ... Kt to Kt sq.

(As pointed out above, if Black had made what seems to be the obvious move, viz., to defend the R P with 29.... Kt to Kt sq., White would win with 30. Q to Kt 3 and mate to follow at Kt 7 with the Queen.)

And the game is drawn by White giving "Perpetual check." That is the utmost he can hope, being a piece minus.

Fourth Variation.

And wins, for Black can only play 12. ... Kt to K 2, to which White replies 13. R takes B, or R to K sq., or Kt to K 5, &c. This variation should be carefully studied, for Black will frequently fall into the trap thus laid for him.

From considerations of space, it is only possible to give two or three variations of each opening, and these in a very condensed form. For further examples the reader is referred to Hoffer's Chess (see note on first page of this article).

THE EVANS GAMBIT.

The Evans Gambit is in reality only a sub-variation of the Giuoco Piano, but might aptly be called, in contradistinction to it, Giuoco Presto, the former being slow, the latter lively.

The first three moves are those of the Giuoco Piano. The last move constitutes the Evans Gambit. The object of sacrificing the Kt P is to establish a centre through the advance of the Q B P and Q P; to open an outlet for the Q and Q B, and so obtain a quick development of the pieces, and consequently a powerful attack.

If 4. ... Kt takes P, White replies with 5. P to B 3, and after 5. ... Kt to Q B 3 the position is the same.

The Bishop may also retire to R 4, to Q 3, or to K 2. The two last mentioned moves cannot be recommended, and may be dismissed; but it is desirable to know the variations arising from 5. ... B to R 4, which is preferred by many eminent players.

White may also play here 7. P takes P, to which Black's best reply is 7. ... B to Kt 3, and not 7. ... B to Kt 5; ch.

This is the only safe move in this variation. 7. ... P takes P, would be bad unless, on the fifth move, Black had played B to R 4, when the so-called "compromised" defence would have ensued.

7. ... Kt to B 3, which seems a plausible move here, would involve the probable loss of the game—e.g.:

7.	...	7.	Kt to B 3
8.	P takes P	8.	B to Kt 3
9.	P to K 5	9.	P to Q 4
10.	P takes Kt	10.	P takes B
11.	R to K sq.: ch.	11.	K to B sq.
12.	B to R 3: ch.	12.	K to Kt sq.
13.	P to Q 5	13.	Kt to R 4
14.	B to K 7	14.	Q to Q 2
15.	P takes P	15.	K takes P
16.	Q to Q 2	16.	Q to Kt 5
17.	Q to B 3: ch.	17.	K to Kt sq.
18.	Q takes R: ch.	18.	K takes Q
19.	B to B 6: ch.	19.	K to Kt sq. (or Q to Kt 2)
20.	R to K 8: checkmate

The best move. It is the Normal Defence to the previous move, which constitutes the Normal Attack.

9. ... Kt to K 4 would be unfavourable, because of 10. Kt takes Kt, P takes Kt; 11. B to R 3, B to Q 5 (?); 12. Kt to Q 2, B takes R; 13. Q takes B, P to K B 3; 14. P to B 4, and should win. The alternative Knight's move—viz., 9. ... Q Kt to K 2, is also inferior, because of 10. P to K 5, Kt to R 3 (!); 11. Kt to B 3, Castles; 12. Kt to K 4, with a good attack.

One of the chief points of the Evans Gambit is that Black's Q Kt is driven to Q R 4, and has to remain there for some time inactive, so that Black is, for the time being, practically a piece minus for the defence. White must, therefore prevent as long as possible this Knight from coming into play. It will be seen that Black could not have played 10. ... Kt takes B, because in such case 11. B takes K Kt P, winning the exchange.

If White had here played 11. B takes P instead of the text move, the continuation might probably have been—

11.	B takes P	11.	R to K Kt sq.
12.	B to B 6	12.	Kt takes B
13.	Q to R 4: ch.	13.	Q to Q 2
14.	Q takes Kt	14.	R takes P: ch.
15.	K takes R	15.	Q to Kt 5: ch.
16.	K to R sq.	16.	Q takes Kt: ch.
17.	K to Kt sq.	17.	B to R 6, and wins.

White concentrates his forces for an attack on the King's side, whilst Black, being stronger on the Queen's side, must try to create a diversion on that side.

The King's move is necessary, else Black could play 15.... Kt to K 4; 16. Kt takes Kt, B P takes Kt, and White could not reply 17. P to B 4 (an essential move for the attack), because Black would then win a piece with 17.... P to B 5; discovering check, and attacking the Bishop at the same time.

This Bishop being now comparatively useless at Kt 3, since the White King has quitted the black diagonal, retires, in order to make room for the advance of the pawns.

To support the advance of the Kt P.

It is an essential point in the defense to prevent White's Knight from being posted at K 6. If White is able to accomplish this, his attack becomes so powerful that it cannot be withstood. It would, therefore, be bad for Black to play, instead of the move given in the text, 18.... B takes Kt, because of 19. P takes B, Kt to K 4; 20. B takes Kt, B P takes B; 21. Kt to Kt 5, followed by 22. Kt to K 6 (the dangerous move just pointed out).