We find that the Municipal Ordinances of the Middle Ages give very little information by which we can judge of the merits of the objects produced. A Guild of Armourers existed at Barcelona as early as 1257, and of Sword makers from the 14th century; but the information given concerning this subject is very slight. We find more details in the Ordinances of Toledo, Seville, and Granada, whence we learn that manufactories of arms existed in these towns.

Bowles says, in his "Introduction to the Natural and Geographical History of Spain," that the steel used at the manufactory of Toledo was taken from an iron mine existing at a league from Mondragon, the only one then known in Spain.

The celebrity of Toledo blades has excited the curiosity of many who wished to ascertain the cause of their great excellence and renown. Some supposed the sword manufacturers of Toledo possessed a secret for tempering their arms: it was not so, however; their only secret being the waters of the Tagus and the fine white sand on its banks. This sand was used for cooling the steel: when the steel was red-hot, and began to give forth sparks, it was uncovered a little and sprinkled with sand, and sent on to the forgers. As soon as the blade was ready it was tempered in the following manner: a line of fire was made and the blade placed in it in such a manner that only four-fifths of its length should touch the fire. As soon as the blade was red-hot it was dropped perpendicularly into a bucket of Tagus water; when cold, if it was found to be bent, a small portion of sand was poured on the yoke, the blade was placed upon it, and beaten until properly straightened. After this the fifth part of the blade was fired, and when red-hot was seized with tongs and rubbed with suet, which soon began to melt; after this the blade was sent to the grinding-stones, and finished by being polished by wooden wheels with emery powder.

Palomares, who was present, says: "As soon as the building was ready and disposed for working, Luis Calisto, a famous sword maker, began to work. Calisto was a native of Valencia, and more than 70 years of age when he was appointed. Other artists were chosen at the same time by the Director. In the short space of time in which that chief master armourer lived, he made most excellent weapons; he was most skilful, and was probably imitated by his successor."

Names of the Sword Makers of Toledo.

The numbers given correspond to the plates of their marks, given in "Catalogo de la Real Armeria."

Nos. 95, 96, 97, 98, and 99, are the marks of sword makers whose names are unknown.

The following names may be added to this list—

This artist, and the eleven following, are mentioned in original documents at the Academia de San Fernando.

Two fine rapiers are in the Kensington Museum, Nos. 626, '68, and 2214, '55, which belong to the 16th and 17th centuries, and give a good idea of this industry of Toledo. Woodcuts of these appear on the opposite page. One of the blades is marked with the name of Francisco Ruiz. A large and most important collection of rapiers, swords, and other arms exists at the Royal Armoury of Madrid.

The breastplates are unusually fine, but the finest among them are by Milanese artists. A good example, which has been considered Spanish, was formerly in the Bernal Collection (see woodcut on p. 98); it gives an excellent idea of the artistic importance attained by this industry.

"This weapon has been used in Spain from very early times, and has been made by the best masters; the most famous among them were—

"The only famous maker of crossbows of the present time is Juan de Lastra."

Martinez de Espinar gives in his "Arte de Ballesteria," p. 41, the names of the best Spanish arquebuse or musket makers, and says: "The first cannon brought to Spain came from Germany; the artist who made them used the following marks:—

"Two heads.

"A vase.

"A vase and pine.

"A pair of tongs.

"Flames.

"A knife.

"An excellent artificer worked formerly in Italy called Lazari Cominaz, but many bad cannons have been attributed to him.

"The best Spanish masters were—

"Maestre Simon, el viejo.

"Maestre Pedro, his brother, who made at Madrid excellent cannon and locks.

"Maestre Simon had four sons; all of them followed his profession. Felipe and Simon Marcuarte have worked for Philip III. and IV. Simon Marcuarte is still alive. They mark with a sickle in a shield, and make also excellent hunting-knives, archers' knives, halberds, and other things. Pedro, their brother, is also an excellent artificer.

"Juan Salado worked in several localities, and died at Salamanca. He was an excellent arquebuse maker. His mark was the letter of his name and a horse.

"Sanchez de Mirveña, his son-in-law, followed him. He marked with a lion and his initials.

"Gaspar Fernandez was brought by King Ferdinand from Salamanca, and the arms he makes are the best in Spain.

"Pedro Muñoz worked at Seville. He was surnamed El Toledano, and marked with all the letters of his name.

"Juan de Metola did the same.

"Leguizamo worked at Seville. He marked with his name and two stags.

"Francisco Hernandez used his full name.

"Andres Herraez was a native of Cuenca. He made every sort of arm, and marked with an eagle and his initials.

"Maestre Cristoval de Ricla marked with an X.

"Pedro Palacios with P P."

A fine musket exists by Palacios at the Royal Armoury of Madrid—No. 427. By Cristoval de Ricla there is a cannon of worked iron, No. 2319, mounted on its gun-carriage, with the following inscription, "Hizome en Ricla Cristoval Frisleva año, 1565." A fine gun, also at the Armeria, is by the same artist.

Juan de Espinar does not mention the following artists, who lived at his time at Madrid. I find their names given in original documents in the Library of the Academia de San Fernando.

By extracting the information on this subject which is given in the introduction to the Catalogue of the Armoury, we find this list can be brought down to our time:—

Sr. Rico y Sinovas has published an interesting article on ironwork in the "Almanaque de el Museo de la Industria," 1872. He gives the names of the following artists who were famous in this industry.

The following artists' names may be added; they consist of master cutlers of Madrid, and are to be found in a bundle of original documents at the Academy of San Fernando.

The following names of artists are given in Calomarde's "Historia Politica de Aragon."

• Ferrara, Andres, Zaragoza, 16th century.
• Picado, Jeronimo, Calatayud, 1722.
• Nieva, Luis, Calatayud, 17th century.
• Munester, Andres, Calatayud, 18th century.

IT is difficult to give an account of the furniture used in Spain from the earliest times, owing to the absence of specimens belonging to the Roman or Visigothic period. We are safe, however, in affirming that, during the domination of the Romans, the same models were used in Spain as in Rome itself, the similarity between objects of other kinds which exists, and the continual habit of the Romans of imposing their culture on the countries which they conquered, is sufficient to justify this idea. During the first period of the Christian era until about the 11th century, other objects which have reached us as gold and silversmiths' work, seem to prove that all industrial art work, including furniture must have been Classic, Byzantine, or Oriental in form, according to the period in which these styles predominated. The Roman or Classical style must have lasted for a considerable time, if we judge by the texts given by San Isidoro, in his "Etymologies," lib. xx., cap. xi. and xii. San Isidoro lived in the 7th century of our era. We find he mentions the words, de lectis et sellis, de vehiculis, which refer to furniture of the Roman period; but we do not meet with any distinctive terms which can be applied to the time in which he lived, on the contrary he comments on phrases and alludes to the forms of objects in the same manner as Rufus, Varrus, and other classical writers.

Edrisi, who lived at Cordova at the beginning of the 12th century, describes this pulpit in the same manner. It was to be seen in the cathedral of Cordova as late as the 16th century, when it was destroyed, and its materials employed in the construction of an altar. An Arab minbar is in the South Kensington Museum, which came from Cairo, and although belonging to the last centuries of the Middle Ages, it will give an idea of this structure and its elaborate workmanship.

Another interesting object, which is useful for illustrating furniture in Spain in the 12th century, is the Bishop's throne in the cathedral of Gerona. It is of white marble of one piece, covered with a simple ornamentation in excellent taste, in a similar style, and for the same purpose, as the throne of San Clemente in Rome. It is raised at the back of the altar, and is ascended by thirteen steps. The Bishop sits on this throne after the first purification, and continues there until the Offertory, when he descends and finishes the mass at the altar; owing to the existence of this chair, one of the most ancient rites of Catholicism has been preserved at Gerona.

Mention must also be made of the shrine in which the remains of Queen Urraca are kept in the cathedral of Palencia, and the Cofre del Cid in the cathedral of Burgos, although they are more interesting for their antiquity than their artistic merit.

Tabernaculum hoc vocabitur aula Dei quia vere Dominis est in loco isto. Fuit autem constructum ad honorem et reverentiam sacratissimi corporis Domini nostri Ihu Xpi et pasionis ejusdem nec non ad honorem == et reverentiam sanctissime genitricis ejusdem et totius celestis curie et sanctorum ... at fuit ... depictum anno MCCCXC. anima ordinatoris requiescat ... sinu salvatoris. Amen.

A very interesting specimen of this combination of styles is a recess or cupboard of the 14th century, which is at the Kensington Museum, No. 1764, 71, [see woodcut]. It is 5 feet 4 inches high, by 8 feet wide; and is composed of an outer arch, with the tympani ornamented with fine arabesques in relief, made of stucco,—representing vine tendrils, leaves, and flowers, similar to those which appear in the Cosa de Mesa and other Moorish houses at Toledo. The arch is surrounded by two Latin inscriptions in Gothic characters, of which only the following words are legible + Autem transies per medium ilorum.... mente +. The first of these is from St. Luke, iv., v. 30, a passage often quoted by alchemists.

This arch serves as a portal to the cupboard, which is about a foot deep, and is divided into two compartments with two rows of shelves. Each of these is supported by a series of Moorish arches, the tympani of which are ornamented with tracery, or an ornamentation of leaves in a geometrical and Oriental manner. On the rim of the upper part is repeated the following inscription in African characters:

In order to increase the list of these objects, which are unfortunately so rare, it is necessary to mention the organ case, decorated with fine Moorish tracery, in the chapel founded by Diego de Anaya, Archbishop of Seville in 1374, in the cloister of the cathedral of Salamanca.

Another specimen of furniture of interest of the 14th century is the shrine or casket containing the remains of San Isidoro, existing in the parish church of San Andres at Madrid. This casket is 7 feet 5 inches long; the cover is formed of two plain surfaces, forming a roof, which leaves a triangular pediment at each end. The shrine is made of wood, covered outside with a coat of painting in distemper, and is decorated with a series of painted compartments simulating pointed tricuspid arches let into others which are mitre-shaped; in the interior spaces are painted a series of representations of the life of the saint. This object is extremely interesting: it is evidently of Spanish workmanship, although it has great resemblance with the Italian cassoni of the same period. See vol. iv. "Mus. Esp." p. 593, and "Monumentos Arquitectonicos"—livraison 67.

It is probable that the earliest wood carvers who worked in Spain came from Flanders or Holland, if we judge by the decided Germanic character of the figures and ornamentation, and frequent mention made of foreign masters; but this industry very soon took root in Spain, and Spanish artists soon equalled or excelled their masters. The most important choir stalls carved in the Gothic style in Spain belong only to the last years of the 15th and beginning of the 16th century; those in the Renaissance style come immediately afterwards, and include the whole 16th century.

The stalls at the cathedral and church of Sto. Tomas of Avila, and cathedral of Burgos are also very fine. The coro at Barcelona is extremely picturesque; at the backs of the stalls are placed the coats of arms of the knights of the Golden Fleece, in a similar manner to those of St. George's Chapel at Windsor; among these we find the arms of Henry the VIIIth. In 1519 the Emperor Charles V. held at Barcelona a chapter of this Order, the only one which has ever been held in Spain.

Choir stalls, sharing the fate of other architectural works, followed the general path of decay after the 16th century. Those stalls at the cathedral of Malaga, which were carved in the 17th century by José Michael, Pedro de Mena, and Luis Ortiz, are worthy of mention: the figures in high relief at the back are very fine. This falling off of artistic feeling is particularly observable at the cathedral of Cordova; the stalls there, which were carved by Pedro Duque Cornejo in the 18th century, are admirable in richness of ornamentation, but the whole decoration is in the worst possible taste. The fine lecterns which are placed in the centres of the choirs are often good examples of carving. An admirable model of this style exists at the cathedral of Zamora.

A fine cupboard of walnut wood may be seen at the same cathedral which is unrivalled for its beauty. It is composed of an architectural order with six pilasters, forming five vacant spaces completely covered with medallions, groups of children, flowers, and a multitude of subjects of ornamentation in reliefs, terminating with a frieze crowned with candelabra and salient points. This piece of furniture was made in 1549-1551, by the sculptor, Pedro Pardo, for holding vestments of the clergy. In 1780 a reproduction was made by Gregorio Lopez Durango: the original and the copy face each other in the room which is passed on entering the Sala Capitular. As Spanish carved wood work of the beginning of the 16th century may be mentioned the specimens at the Kensington Museum, Nos. 245 and 246-64, of two panels with armorial shields.

These cabinets were made in a great variety of ways. Some were, as we have seen, copied in Spain from foreign models, but the greater number constituted a characteristic industry of the Peninsula. Some were covered with wood carvings in a similar style to the large armoires in the Sala Capitular at Toledo. Others were known by the name of Vargueños, because the great centre of their manufacture is supposed to have existed at the village of Vargas in the province of Toledo. These cabinets are effective; their geometrical ornamentation is a reminiscence of the Oriental style, and the iron work outside is very striking. A good specimen may be seen at the Kensington Museum, No. 1073, '71; a woodcut of the upper portion is given on the next page.

We also meet with cabinets and armoires with glass doors covered with tortoise-shell and gilt bronze. A splendid series of inlaid work of tortoise-shell, ebony, mother-of-pearl and ivory is preserved at the Sacristy of the Cartuja at Granada, made by a friar of the same convent, Manuel Vazquez, at the beginning of the last century. Cabinets of ebony, inlaid and covered with repoussé silver work, must have been very generally made in Spain; silver was used to so great an extent after the conquest of America, that a law was issued in 1574 prohibiting with the utmost rigour the making and selling of this kind of merchandise, in order not to increase the scarcity of silver. "No cabinets, desks, coffers, braziers, etc., shall be manufactured of silver."

The cabinets decorated with pietre duri, which are frequently met with in Spain were of foreign make. Madame d'Aunoy, in describing the house of a grandee of Spain in her "Voyage d'Espagne," p. 56, vol. ii., Lyon, 1643, says, "et de grands cabinets de pièces de rapport enrichis de pierreries, lesquels ne sont pas faits en Espagne: des tables d'argent d'entre eux, et des miroirs admirables tant pour leur grandeur que pour leurs riches bordures, dont les moins belles sont d'argent. Ce que j'ai trouvé de plus beau sont des escaparates; une espèce de petit cabinet fermé d'une seule glace et rempli de tout ce qu'on se peut figurer de plus rare." Cabinets ornamented with paintings on glass, or copper, or enamels came from Flanders, and some rare specimens of damasquine work were most probably Milanese manufacture.

In Cean Bermudez "Dicc Historico de los Profesores de Bellas Artes" appear among the sculptors' names, those of the artists who carved the most important stalls of the cathedrals, and other works of art of a similar kind, but the names of those who made cabinets have never yet been published. I have been fortunate enough to be able to collect the following from unpublished documents which exist at the Library of the Acad. de San Fernando at Madrid. They worked in the 16th and 17th century.

The word guadamecil applied to this leather comes from the village of Ghadames in Africa, celebrated from the 12th century for this industry. It was imported by the Moors into Spain, and Cordova became from the beginning of the Middle Ages the great centre of this production, although other towns, such as Seville, Granada, Toledo, and Barcelona, exported these leathers also. The chronicler Ambrosio de Morales, in his "Las Antiguedades de las ciudades de España," Alcala, 1575, says, p. 10, "A great commerce is produced by the exportation of skins, and many have been enriched by it, those prepared at Cordova are so excellent, that now in Spain any goat hide prepared in any locality is called Cordovan. Guadameciles are made of leather, and are so well fashioned in Cordova that none can compete with them; they are exported to the Indies and all Europe. They produce much for the town, and beautify the principal streets, for the hides are hung out to dry after they are painted and gilt, and it is a fine sight to see the walls covered with such variety of colour and form."

A good collection of these guadameciles is in the South Kensington Museum. See Nos. 471 to 485, '69, and 1651 to 1654, '71.

At the end of the 17th and first half of the 18th century, the Baroque or Churrigueresque architecture had such influence over furniture, that although exaggerated examples were very common, they reached in no country to such a pitch as they did in Spain. As specimens, the enormous retablos over the high altars made of gilt carved wood may be mentioned, which are so frequently to be seen in Spanish churches. The exuberance of uncouth heavy ornamentation destroys the regularity and harmony of the general effect. Chairs and tables were made then in the same style, and the cornucopias or decorated mirrors which adorn Spanish churches and sacristy, belong to this period. The name of cornucopia was given in allusion to the horn of abundance.