1. A lawyer is one who, by profession, transacts legal business for others, who, in this relation, are called clients. A lawyer is either an attorney or councillor, or both. The part of legal business, belonging peculiarly to the attorney, consists in preparing the details of the pleadings and the briefs for the use of the councillor, whose especial province it is to make the argument before the court. When the lawyer prepares his own case and makes the argument, as he generally does, he acts in the capacity of both attorney and councillor. In the court of chancery the lawyer is denominated solicitor, and in the admiralty court, proctor. Before a person is permitted to practise law in our courts, he is required to pass through a regular course of study, and afterwards undergo an examination before persons learned in the law.
2. This profession has its foundation in the numerous and complicated laws which have been adopted by men, to govern their intercourse with each other. These laws, as they exist in our country, may be divided into constitutional and municipal. Constitutional law is that by which the government of the United States, and those of the different states, have been established, and by which they are governed in their action. The Constitution of the United States is the supreme law of the land.
3. Municipal law embraces those rules of civil conduct prescribed by the supreme power of the state, or of the United States; and is composed of statute and common law. Statute law is the express will of the legislative part of the government, rendered authentic by certain forms and ceremonies prescribed by the Constitution.
4. Common law is a system of rules and usages, which have been applied in particular cases of litigation. It originated in the dictates of natural justice, and cultivated reason, and is found more particularly in the reports of the decisions of the courts of justice. The common law is employed in cases which positive enactments do not reach, and in construing and applying positive enactments. The common law of England has been adopted by every state in the Union, except Louisiana.
5. The Constitution of the United States, and those of the several states, provides for three departments in their respective governments, viz., the legislative, the executive, and the judicial. It is the chief province of the first to enact laws, and of the second and third to see that they are duly executed.
6. The judicial power of the United States is vested in one supreme court and two inferior courts. The Supreme Court is now composed of seven justices who commence their session in the Capitol, at Washington, on the second Monday in January. The two inferior courts are the District and Circuit Courts. In the first of these presides a single judge; in the second, one of the justices of the Supreme Court, and the district judge.
7. The judiciary of the United States takes cognisance of all cases which arise under the Constitution, laws, and treaties, of the United States, and likewise of those cases arising under the law of nations. It also embraces all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction, as well as those controversies to which the government of the United States is a party, the controversies between two states, between a state and citizens of another state, between citizens of different states, and between a state or citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens, or subjects.
8. The judicial systems of all the states correspond, in many respects, with each other. In all, the office of justice of the peace is similar. To these magistrates, the general police of the counties is chiefly committed, as they have authority to cause criminals, and other disturbers of the peace, to be arrested; and, if the offence is small, to fix the penalty; but, if the offence is too great to be brought within their jurisdiction, they commit the offenders to prison, to be reserved for trial before a higher tribunal.
9. In many of the states, the common magistrates of the county, or a select number of them, form a court, called County Sessions, which has a comprehensive jurisdiction in matters of police, and in regulating the affairs of the county; such as building courthouses, assessing county taxes, opening roads, and licensing taverns.
10. In Virginia, the County Sessions is an important court. Its jurisdiction extends to many criminal cases, and to those of a civil nature involving the amount of $300. Although a great amount of business passes through these courts, the justices discharge all their duties without compensation. In most of the states, the common magistrates, in their individual or collective capacity, have jurisdiction over civil cases, varying in their greatest amount from thirteen to one hundred dollars, a right of appeal being reserved to a higher court.
11. No definite qualifications are required by law or usage for practising in the magistrates' courts, accordingly, there are many persons who plead causes here, who do not properly belong to the profession of law; these are called pettifoggers, and the practice itself, by whomsoever performed, is called pettifogging. Lawyers of inferior abilities and acquirements are, also, frequently termed pettifoggers.
12. In all the states, a class of county courts is established, denominated Courts of Common Pleas, County Courts, District or Circuit Courts, which have original jurisdiction of civil actions at law, or indictments for crimes. Over these are established the Superior or Supreme Courts, or Courts of Error and Appeal, to which appeals are admitted from the inferior courts.
13. Civil cases are frequently decided on principles of equity; and, in some states, courts of chancery are established for this purpose. But, in most of the states, there are no decisions of this kind; or the same courts act as courts of law and equity, as is the case with the courts of the United States.
14. There are several other courts that might be mentioned; but enough has been said of these institutions, to give an idea of the extensive range of the profession of the law. It may be well to remark here, that few lawyers aspire to the privilege of practising in the supreme courts; since, to be successful there it would require not only great abilities, but more extensive reading than the profession generally are willing to encounter.
15. When a client has stated his case in detail to his attorney, it is the province of the latter to decide upon the course most proper to be pursued in regard to it. If the client is the plaintiff, and litigation is determined upon, the attorney decides upon the court in which the case should be brought forward, and also upon the manner in which it should be conducted.
16. The suit having been brought, say into the County Court, it is tried according to law. If it involves facts or damages, it is canvassed before a jury of twelve men, who are bound by oath or affirmation to bring in their verdict according to the evidence presented by both parties. It is the business of the lawyers, each for his own client, to sum up the evidence which may have been adduced, and to present the whole in a light as favorable to his own side of the question as possible.
17. When the case involves points of law which must needs be understood by the jury, to enable them to make a correct decision, the advocates of the parties present their views with regard to them; but, if these happen to be wrong, the judge, in his charge to the jury, rectifies the mistake or misrepresentation. The case having been decided, each party is bound to submit to the decision, or appeal, if permitted by law, to a higher tribunal.
18. Causes to be determined on legal principles only, are brought before the judge or judges for adjudication. In such cases, the advocates present the statute or common law supposed to be applicable, and then reports of similar cases, which may have been formerly decided in the same or similar courts. These reports are the exponents of the common law of the case, and are supposed, in most instances, to furnish data for correct decisions.
10. Besides the management of causes in public courts, the lawyer has a great mass of business of a private nature; such as drawing wills, indentures, deeds, and mortgages. He is consulted in a great variety of cases of a legal nature, where litigation is not immediately concerned, and especially in regard to the validity of titles to real estate; and the many impositions to which the community is liable from defective titles, render the information which he is able to afford on this subject, extremely valuable.
20. In the preceding account of this profession, it is easy to perceive that it is one of great utility and responsibility. It is to the attorney, that the oppressed repair for redress against the oppressor; and to him, the orphan and friendless look, to aid them in obtaining or maintaining their rights. To this profession, also, as much as to any other, the American people may confidently look for the maintenance of correct political principles.
1. Among the various avocations of men, that of the physician deserves to be placed in the foremost rank. The profession is founded in the multiplicity of diseases to which humanity is liable, and in the medical qualities of certain substances, which have been found to supply a remedy.
2. It is implied, though not expressly declared, in the Scriptures, that the diseases and other calamities pertaining to our earthly condition, originated in the fall of man from his pristine innocence; and the Grecian fable of Pandora's box appears to have originated in a similar tradition. It seems that Jupiter, being angry at Prometheus, ordered Vulcan to make a woman endowed with every possible perfection. This workman having finished his task, and presented the workmanship of his hands to the gods, they loaded her with presents, and sent her to Prometheus.
3. This prince, however, suspecting a trick, would have nothing to do with her; but Epimetheus was so captivated with her charms, that he took her to be his wife. The curiosity of Epimetheus led him to look into a box, given to her by Jupiter, which he had no sooner opened, than there issued from it the complicated miseries and diseases, which have since afflicted the family of man. He instantly shut the box; but all had flown, save Hope, which had not time to escape; and this is consequently the only blessing that permanently remains with wretched mortals.
4. Since the introduction of moral evil into the world, it cannot be supposed that man has ever enjoyed the blessing of uninterrupted health; and, as it is an instinct of our nature to seek for means of relieving pain, we may safely infer that medicinal remedies were applied in the earliest ages of the human race.
5. Among some of the ancient nations, the origin of diseases was attributed to the malignant influence of supernatural agents. This notion produced a corresponding absurdity, in the means of obtaining relief. Accordingly, idolatrous priests, astrologers, and magicians, were resorted to, who employed religious ceremonies, astrological calculations, and cabalistic incantations.
6. The healing art was cultivated at a very early period in Egypt; but it was crippled in its infancy by ordinances, enjoining, without discrimination, the remedies for every disease, and the precise time and mode of their application. The practice was confined to the priests, who connected with it the grossest superstitions.
7. We are informed by the most ancient historians, that the Chaldeans and Babylonians exposed their sick in places of public resort, and on the highways; and that strangers and others were required by law to give some advice in each case of disease. Amid the variety of suggestions which must necessarily have been given under such circumstances, it was expected that some would prove efficacious. This custom was well calculated to enlarge the boundaries of medical knowledge.
8. The first records of medicine were kept in the temples dedicated by the Greeks to Esculapius, who, on account of his skill in medicine, was honored as the god of health. The name or description of the disease, and the method of cure, were engraved on durable tablets, which were suspended, where they could be readily seen by visitors.
9. But medicine did not assume the dignity of a distinct science, until the days of Hippocrates, who reckons himself the seventeenth from Esculapius in a lineal descent. This great man, who flourished about 400 years before the Christian era, is universally esteemed the "Father of Medicine." After his death, the science was cultivated by the philosophers of Greece, to whom, however, it owes but few improvements.
10. After the dismemberment of the Macedonian empire, learning retreated from contending factions to Egypt, where it was liberally fostered by the Ptolemies. Under their patronage, a medical school at Alexandria became eminent, and the healing art flourished beyond all former example. To the disciples of this school, is the world indebted for the first correct description of the human structure. Their knowledge on this subject was obtained from the dissection of the bodies of criminals, which had been assigned to them by the government.
11. The acquisitions of the Greeks in medical science at length became the inheritance of the Romans; but Rome had existed 535 years before a professional physician was known in the city. This inattention to the subject of medicine arose, chiefly, from an opinion, common to the semi-barbarous nations of those times, that maladies were to be cured by the interposition of superior beings. The sick, therefore, applied to their idolatrous priests, who offered sacrifices to the gods in their behalf, and practised over the body of the patient a variety of magical ceremonies.
12. Sacrifices were especially offered to the gods in cases of pestilence; and, on one occasion of this kind, a temple was erected to Apollo, who was regarded as the god of physic; and, on another, Esculapius, under the form of a serpent, was conducted from Epidaurus, in Greece, and introduced, with great pomp, upon an islet in the Tiber, which was thenceforth devoted to his particular service.
13. Archagathus, a Greek, was the first who practised physic, as an art, at Rome; and he was soon followed by many more of his professional brethren. These pioneers of medicine, however, were violently opposed by Cato the Censor, who publicly charged them with a conspiracy to poison the citizens. But the patients under their care generally recovering, he began to regard them as impious sorcerers, who counteracted the course of nature, and restored men to life by means of unholy charms.
14. Cato having succeeded in producing a general conviction, that the practice of these physicians was calculated to enervate the constitutions, and corrupt the manners of the people, restrictions were laid upon the profession, and practitioners were even forbidden to settle at Rome. But after the people had become more vicious and luxurious, diseases became more frequent and obstinate, and physicians more necessary. The restrictions were, therefore, at length removed.
15. Among the Roman writers on medicine, Celsus was the first who is worthy of consideration. He has been denominated the Roman Hippocrates, because he imitated the close observation and practice of that physician. His work, as well as that of his great prototype, is read with advantage, even at the present day. He flourished at or near the time of our Saviour.
16. In the second century of the Christian era, Galen, a Greek physician from Pergamus, and a disciple of the Alexandrian school, settled in Rome. He was learned in all branches of medicine, and wrote more copiously on the subject generally, than any other person amongst the ancients. For 1300 years, his opinions were received as oracular, wherever medicine was cultivated.
17. After the destruction of the Western empire by the barbarous nations, the science of medicine was cultivated only in the Greek empire, and chiefly at Alexandria, until it began to arrest the attention of the Arabians, in the seventh century. The works of several Greek philosophers and physicians were translated into Arabic, under the patronage of the caliphs, several of whom were zealous promoters of learning.
18. In the eighth century, the Caliph Almansur established, at Bagdad, a hospital for the sick, and an academy, in which, among other branches of knowledge, was taught the medical art. But it was in Spain, that Arabian learning rose to the highest point, and produced the most successful results. The University of Cordova became the most celebrated in the world, and continued to maintain its reputation for a long series of years. Arabian medicine reached its greatest eminence, in the eleventh century, under Avicenna.
19. In the tenth century, this science began to be taught in the schools of other parts of Europe; but its professors derived their knowledge of the subject from the Arabian school, or from Arabic translations of the ancient authors; and this continued to be the case, until the conquest of Constantinople by the Turks, in 1453. At this time, many erudite Greeks fled into Italy, and carried with them the ancient writings.
20. Before the general revival of this science in Europe, the cure of diseases was chiefly confided, in the western nations, to the priests and monks, who, however, generally relied more upon religious ceremonies, and the influence of sacred relics, than upon the application of medical remedies. The superstitions of those barbarous times, respecting the means of curing diseases, have not yet entirely disappeared, even from the most enlightened nations of Christendom.
21. The science of chemistry began to attract much attention about the beginning of the sixteenth century; and the many powerful medical agents which it supplied, at length produced a great change in the theory and practice of medicine. Many valuable medicines of the vegetable kind, were also obtained from America. The discovery of the circulation of the blood by William Harvey, in 1620, imparted a new impulse to medicine; but, like chemistry, it gave rise to many absurd and hurtful theories.
22. Researches in different branches of medicine were continued with ardor in the seventeenth century, in various parts of Europe; and numerous discoveries of importance were made, especially in anatomy. Many theories regarding the origin of diseases, and their treatment, were proposed, advocated, and controverted; but all these were overthrown by Stahl, Boerhaave, and Hoffman, three eminent theorists, in the early part of the eighteenth century.
23. These distinguished men were followed by others of equal celebrity, in the same century, who, in part at least, exploded the doctrines of their predecessors. The present century, above all other periods, is remarkable for men eminent in this profession; and, although all do not exactly agree in opinion, yet, guided in their conclusions by a careful observation of facts, they are less under the influence of visionary theories than physicians of former times. Besides, many of the subjects of former controversy having been satisfactorily settled, there are now fewer causes of division and excitement among the medical profession.
24. Medical science comprises several branches, of which the following are the principal; viz., Anatomy, Surgery, Materia Medica, Chemistry, the Theory and Practice of Physic. On these subjects, lectures are given in several colleges and universities in Europe, and in the United States. In this country, an attendance on two regular courses of lectures entitles the student to the degree of Doctor of Medicine, provided he can sustain with sufficient ability, an examination before the professors, or, as they are usually termed, the medical faculty.
25. The degree of M. D. conferred by a college or university, is a passport to practice, in every state of the Union; and, in some states, none are permitted to attend the sick, professionally, without having first obtained a diploma conferring such degree. In other states, however, no legal restrictions are imposed on the practitioners of the healing art; or, they are licensed by a board of physicians, constituted by law for the purpose.
26. The practice of this profession is generally attended with great labor, and, in many cases, with much perplexity. Diseases are often stubborn or incurable, and effectually baffle the most skilful practitioner. In most cases, however, diseases are under the control of medical skill; and the high satisfaction which a benevolent physician feels, in relieving the sufferings of his fellow-creatures, may serve as a recompense for the many adverse circumstances which attend the profession.
1. This globe, and every thing appertaining to it, is composed of substances, which exist either in a compound or simple state. It is the object of the scientific chemist to investigate the properties of these substances, and to show their action upon each other. By this science, therefore, compound bodies are reduced to the simple elements of which they are composed, or new combinations formed.
2. According to the preceding definitions, chemistry comprehends an immense variety of objects. It is scarcely possible to name a thing or phenomenon in the natural world, to which it does not directly or indirectly apply; even the growth of vegetables, and the preparation and digestion of our food, depend upon chemical principles.
3. The word chemistry is supposed to be of Egyptian origin, and, in its primary application, was the same with our phrase natural philosophy. Its meaning was afterwards restricted to the art of working those metals which were most esteemed. In the third century, it came to be applied to the pretended art of transmuting baser metals into gold. The science, in the latter sense of the word, was eagerly cultivated by the Greeks; and from them it passed to the Arabians, who introduced it into Europe under the name of alchemy.
4. The professors of the art were dignified with the appellation of alchemistic philosophers, and the leading doctrine of the sect was, that all metals are composed of the most simple substances; and that, consequently, base metals were capable of being changed into gold; hence, the chief object of their researches was the discovery of an agent, by which this great change was to be effected. The substance supposed to possess this wonderful property was called "the philosopher's stone;" the touch of which was to change every kind of metal into gold.
5. The greatest rage for alchemy prevailed between the tenth and sixteenth centuries. The writers on this subject who appeared during that period, are very numerous, most of whom are unintelligible, except to those initiated into the art. Many of them, however, display great acuteness, and an extensive acquaintance with natural objects. They all boast, that they are in possession of the philosopher's stone, and profess the ability of communicating a knowledge of making it to others.
6. Their writings and confident professions gained almost implicit credit, and many unwary persons were thus exposed to the tricks of impostors, who offered to communicate their secret for a pecuniary reward. Having obtained the sum proposed, they either absconded, or wearied out their patrons with tedious and expensive processes.
7. Chemists, for a long time, had supposed it possible to discover, by their art, a medicine which should not only cure, but prevent all diseases, and prolong life to an indefinite period, even to immortality. This notion gradually becoming prevalent, the word chemistry acquired a more extensive application, and embraced not only the art of making gold, but also that of preparing "the universal medicine." Some of these visionary men asserted, that the philosopher's stone was this wonderful panacea.
8. Few readers need be informed, that the researches for the philosopher's stone, and the universal remedy, were, at length, abandoned, as fruitless and visionary; yet the numerous experiments which had been instituted on these accounts, were attended with the incidental advantage of a considerable dexterity in the performance of chemical operations, together with the discovery of many new substances and valuable facts, which, without these strong incentives, would have remained, at least, much longer in obscurity.
9. Although none of the medicines, produced in the chemical laboratory, answered the chimerical expectations of the chemists, in curing all diseases, and in rendering the perishable body of man immortal, yet they proved sufficiently valuable in the healing art, to command the attention of the profession all over Europe. The adoption of chemical medicines, however, was, at first, everywhere opposed, either as unsafe remedies, or as being inferior in efficacy to those which had been used for so many centuries.
10. These prejudices having given way to the light of experience, chemical medicines came, at length, to occupy a conspicuous place in the Materia Medica; and their value within the present century has become still more manifest. One of the most useful branches of chemistry, therefore, is to make the various preparations used in the medical art.
11. The most efficient agent in the introduction of chemical medicines, was Theophilus Paracelsus. This singular individual was born near Zurich, in Switzerland. Having studied chemistry under two masters, he commenced a rambling life, in pursuit of chemical and medical knowledge; and, having visited Italy, France, and Germany, where he met with many whimsical adventures, which contributed greatly to advance his reputation, he was elected, in 1527, to fill the chair of chemistry, in the University of Basle.
12. One of the first acts of this arrogant professor was to burn, with the utmost solemnity, while seated in his chair, the works of Galen and Avicenna, declaring to his audience, that if God would not impart the secrets of physic, it was not only allowable, but even justifiable, to consult the devil. He also treated his contemporaries with the same insolence, telling them, in a preface to one of his books, that "the very down on his bald pate had more knowledge than all their writers; the buckle of his shoes more learning than Galen and Avicenna; and his beard more experience than all their universities."
13. It could not be expected, that a man with such a temper could long retain his situation; and, accordingly, he was driven from it, in 1528, by a quarrel with those who had conferred the appointment. From this time, he rambled about the country, chiefly in Germany, leading a life of extreme intemperance, in the lowest company. Nevertheless, he still maintained his reputation as a physician, by the extraordinary cures occasionally effected by his powerful remedies; although his failures were equally conspicuous.
14. But the most signal failure of his remedies occurred in his own person; for, after having boasted for many years of possessing an elixir which would prolong life to an indefinite period, he died, in 1541, at Salzburg, with a bottle of his immortal catholicon in his pocket. The medicines on which Paracelsus chiefly relied, were opium, antimony, and various preparations of mercury. He has the merit of applying the last, especially, to cases in which they had not been before used; and upon this circumstance, his great reputation depended.
15. We have been thus particular in noticing this individual, because he was the first who gave public lectures on chemistry in Europe, and because he gave the first great impulse in favor of chemical medicines. He also carried his speculations concerning the philosopher's stone and the universal remedy, to the greatest height of absurdity; and, by exemplifying their inutility and fallacy in his own person, he contributed more than any one else to their disrepute, and subsequent banishment from the science.
16. Researches for the philosopher's stone, and the universal remedy, having been, at length, relinquished, the chemical facts which had been collected became, in the general estimation, a heap of rubbish of little value. At this time, there arose an individual thoroughly acquainted with these facts, and capable of perceiving the important purposes to which they might be applied.
17. The name of this individual was John Joachim Becher. He published a work in 1669, entitled "Physica Subterranica," by which he gave a new direction to chemistry, by applying it to analyzing and ascertaining the constituent parts of material bodies; and his system is the foundation of the science, as it now exists.
18. George Ernest Stahl, a medical professor in the University of Halle, adopted the theory of Becher, and, after his death, edited the work just mentioned; but he so simplified and improved it, that he made it entirely his own; and, accordingly, it has always been distinguished by the appellation of the Stahlian theory. The principal work of Stahl, on this subject, was published in 1729; and, since that time, chemistry has been cultivated with ardor in Germany, and in other countries in the north of Europe.
19. In France, chemistry became a fashionable study, about the middle of the eighteenth century. It had, however, been cultivated there by a few individuals, long before that period. Men of eminence now appeared in all parts of the kingdom, and discoveries in the science were made in rapid succession. Some attention was also paid to it in Italy and Spain.
20. In Great Britain, this subject attracted but little attention, except from a few individuals, until Dr. Cullen had become professor of the science, in the University of Edinburgh, in 1756. This accurate investigator of natural phenomena, succeeded in enkindling an enthusiasm for chemical investigations among the students; and the subsequent experiments of Dr. Black, Mr. Cavendish, Dr. Priestley, and Lavoisier, which resulted in the discovery of the constituent parts of air and water, diffused the same ardor through every part of the kingdom.
21. Lavoisier, the celebrated French chemist, having proved the Stahlian theory to be incorrect, founded another on the chemical affinities and combinations of oxygen with the various substances in nature. This system has been generally adopted; since it explains a great number of phenomena more satisfactorily than any other ever proposed. The great chemical agent, in the Stahlian system, was supposed to be an inflammable substance, which was denominated by the theorist phlogiston. To distinguish, therefore, the new theory from the one which it superseded, it was called the pneumatic, or anti-phlogistic system.
22. In 1787, a new technical nomenclature was devised, by the aid of which all the chemical facts are easily retained in the memory. Twelve or fifteen terms have been found sufficient for the foundation of a methodical language; and, by changing the terminations of these radicals, or by prefixing certain words or syllables, the changes that take place in bodies are clearly expressed. This valuable innovation originated with Lavoisier and three other French chemists.
23. In the present century, many important discoveries have been made in this science; and, among those who have been distinguished for their researches into its mysteries, Sir Humphrey Davy, of Great Britain, shines pre-eminent. In the United States, it has many able professors; among whom are Professors Hare and Mitchell, of Philadelphia, Torrey, Renwick, and Draper, of New-York, Henry, of Princeton, Beck, of Albany, Silliman, of New-Haven, and Johnson, of Middletown.
24. Chemistry is so extensive in its application, that we will not attempt to describe any of the operations of the laboratory. We, therefore, conclude this article by recommending this science to general attention; assuring the uninitiated, that it is beset with fewer difficulties than they are apt to suppose, and that every effort in the course will be attended with interesting facts and phenomena, which will abundantly reward the labor of investigation.
1. The druggist is a wholesale dealer in drugs, which, in commerce, embrace not only articles used or recommended by the medical profession, but also spices, dye-stuffs, and paints. The commodities of his trade are obtained from almost every quarter of the globe; but especially from the countries bordering upon the Mediterranean Sea, and from the East Indies and Spanish America.
2. The chemist looks to the druggist for most of the materials employed in his laboratory; and from him the apothecary, physician, and country merchant, obtain their chief supply of medicines. There are, however, but few persons in the United States, who confine themselves exclusively to this branch of business; for most of the druggists are also apothecaries, and sometimes operative or manufacturing chemists.
3. Medicinals, when they come into the warehouse of the druggist, are usually in a crude state; and many, or most of them, must necessarily undergo a variety of changes, of a chemical or mechanical nature, before they can be applied in practice. The art by which these changes are effected is called Pharmacy, or Pharmaceutics; and the books which treat of pharmaceutical operations are denominated Pharmacopœias, or Dispensatories.
4. The operations of Pharmacy, which depend upon chemical principles, are conducted chiefly by the operative chemist; but those which consist merely in mechanical reduction, or in mixing together different ingredients, to form compounds, belong properly to the vocation of the apothecary.
5. The apothecary sells medicines in small quantities, prepared for application. Many of the standing compound preparations which have been authorized by the Pharmacopœias, and which are in regular demand, he keeps ready prepared; but a great proportion of his business consists in compounding and putting up the prescriptions of the physician, as they are needed by the patient.
6. In country places, where there are generally no apothecary-shops, the physicians compound and prepare their own prescriptions; but in cities, where these establishments are numerous, the medical profession prefer to rid themselves of this trouble. In most cases, however, they keep by them a few remedies, which can be applied in cases of emergency.
7. In Great Britain, the apothecary is permitted to attend sick persons, and administer medicines either according to his own judgment, or in conformity with the directions of the physician. He is, therefore, a physician of an inferior order; and, as his fees are more moderate than those of the regular profession, his practice is extensive among persons who, from necessity or inclination, are induced to study economy.
8. The apothecaries in England, Scotland, and Ireland, are obliged to make up their standing medicines according to the formulas of the Dispensatories adopted in their respective countries; and their shops are subject to the visitation of censors, who have authority to destroy those medicines which they may consider unfit for use; so that unwholesome or inefficient remedies be not imposed upon the sick. The apothecaries' halls, in France, are also under the supervision of the medical faculty.
9. In the United States, there is no censorship of this kind established by the public authorities; yet the physicians are careful to recommend apothecaries, in whom they have confidence, to prepare their prescriptions. The professors in our medical schools are, also, particular in naming to their students those druggists whom they consider men of honor; and omit, at least, to name those who have been detected in selling adulterated medicines.
10. We have, also, an incorporated college of pharmacy both in New-York and Philadelphia, and in each of these, chemical and pharmaceutical lectures are delivered by regular professors. These institutions, although of recent origin, have exerted an important influence in reforming and preventing abuses in the preparation of medicines; and public opinion, especially in the cities, is beginning to render it important for students in pharmacy to obtain a degree from one of these colleges. Under the auspices of the institution at Philadelphia, is published a quarterly journal, devoted to pharmaceutical science.
11. A Pharmacopœia for the United States was formed at Washington, in 1820, by a delegation of physicians from the principal medical societies of the Union. A revision of this work is expected to be made every ten years. Dispensatories, as they exist in this country, are founded upon the Pharmacopœias, and may be properly considered commentaries upon them, since the former contain the whole of the latter, together with more minute descriptions of the sensible and real properties of the medicines, as well as their history and exact mode of preparation.
1. The human family is subject to a variety of diseases in the teeth, which generally cause the final destruction or loss of these important instruments, unless judicious remedies are applied in proper season. These remedies are administered by the dentist.
2. There are few persons, in proportion to the great mass of the people, who seem to be aware of the utility of dentistry; for, taking the United States together, not more than one person in a hundred ever resorts to the professors of this art, with the view of obtaining a remedy for any dental disease with which he may be afflicted. The common sentiment seems to be, that diseases of the teeth, and their final loss, at different periods of life, are inevitable inconveniences, to which we must submit with the same philosophy with which we meet other misfortunes.
3. To enable readers who have never examined this subject, to comprehend its general nature, we will give a slight sketch of some of the irregularities and diseases to which the teeth are liable, and, as we proceed, speak of the remedies applied by the dentist.
4. Two sets of teeth regularly appear, at different periods of life; one in infancy, and the other, at a later period. The first set consists of twenty, and the second of thirty-two teeth; the former are called infant, and the latter adult; and all these, at the age of six or seven, are upon the jaws at the same time.
5. At the age just mentioned, the infant teeth begin to give way to those which lie deeper in the sockets, and which are designed to supersede the former. As the new teeth advance, the roots of the first are absorbed; and, after having been thus deprived of their support, they are easily removed; sometimes, by a slight pressure of the tongue.
6. In a majority of cases, the whole process is carried on by nature with the utmost regularity; but, as she is not uniformly successful in this operation, there is no other period at which the teeth of children require so much attention and care. Sometimes the second set rise in the socket without causing the absorption of the roots of the first. In such cases, the former approach in an improper direction; and, unless the latter are removed in season, deformity will be the consequence.
7. When, however, these precautions have been neglected, and the teeth stand in an irregular manner, they can sometimes be reduced to symmetry by the dentist, without occasioning much pain. When the front teeth are too much crowded by reason of the restricted dimensions of the jaw, the small teeth, situated next behind the eye, or canine teeth, are extracted, one on each side, to give room to the rest.
8. From the ages of six to fifteen years, the teeth of children should be examined, at least once in six months, by a dentist, who, if skilful, can seldom fail of rendering these ornaments of the human countenance regular, healthy, and beautiful. It is customary in England and France, for the proprietors of seminaries of learning to employ a dentist to visit their establishments regularly, for the purpose of performing such operations, and of administering such remedies, as their pupils may require.
9. The teeth are composed of very hard bone and enamel. The latter is a substance exceeding in density any other in the body. It covers the crown of the teeth, and is thickest in those parts which are most exposed to forcible contact in mastication; but, in no place, is it more than the twelfth of an inch in thickness.
10. The most common disease of the teeth is caries, or decay, and almost every part of them is liable to be affected by it, but especially the sides of those in front, and the crowns of those on other parts of the jaws.
11. The disease begins its attack either on the enamel or on the bony portion, and gradually extends itself over the tooth, until it reaches the nerves which supply its natural cavity. These having become exposed to the sudden changes of temperature, and to the contact of extraneous substances in mastication, pain and inflammation are produced, and the extraction of the tooth very commonly becomes the only means of relief.
12. All persons are more or less subject to this disease, but some much more than others; and caries of a peculiar character has been so often traced through whole families, from one generation to another, that it is considered hereditary, as much as any other disease to which the system is liable. In many cases, caries seems to be the effect of some serious disease which affected the constitution, while the teeth were in the early stages of formation.
13. Although the teeth of some individuals possess but little durability, and, when caries attacks them, go on rapidly to decay, in spite of all the aid which science and skill can afford, yet, there are comparatively but few instances in which seasonable and judicious treatment will not arrest the progress of the disease.
14. When the teeth are but slightly affected with caries, especially on the sides, a cure may be accomplished by the removal of the decayed portion. This is effected, by the most approved dentists, chiefly with small cutting instruments. Formerly, the file and the saw were employed for this purpose; and, by their indiscriminate and injudicious use, many teeth were ruined, and the art of dentistry itself brought into disrepute.
15. Notwithstanding the injuries which have been inflicted by the improper application of the saw and file, in some instances they are indispensable; and, in the hands of the scientific operator, they need not be feared. They are especially useful in preparing the way for the employment of other instruments; for, in some cases, the affected part can with difficulty be reached by any other means. But filing the teeth for the purpose of improving their appearance, or for rendering the sides more accessible to the tooth-pick and brush, seems to be reprobated by the most intelligent part of the profession.
16. When the caries has penetrated far into the tooth, and, in its removal, a cavity of suitable form and dimensions can be produced, it is filled with some substance, with the view of protecting the bone from the action of extraneous agents. The dentist is careful to remove every particle of the decayed portion, and to render the cavity perfectly dry by repeated applications of lint or raw cotton, before he attempts to fill it.
17. Gold is the only substance which possesses sufficient solidity to withstand the ordinary friction of mastication, and which, at the same time, is capable of resisting the chemical action of the substances that come in contact with it; yet lead and tin are frequently employed; and many have been made to believe that they answer as good, if not a better purpose, than gold itself. The durability of these metals, however, can never be depended upon, and they ought not to be employed, where the tooth is capable of resisting the mechanical force required to fill it properly with gold.
18. The metal is prepared for the use of the dentist by the gold-beater, in the manner described in the article which treats upon the business of the latter. The leaves, however, are not beaten so thin as those designed for the common purposes of the arts. The portion to be applied is cut from the leaf, and, after having been twisted a little, is forced into the cavity. The metal is rendered perfectly solid by means of instruments adapted to the purpose.
19. This operation, properly performed under favorable circumstances, generally renders the tooth as serviceable, to the end of life, as if it had never been diseased. The hopes of the patient, however, are sometimes disappointed by the unskilfulness of the operator, or by the general unhealthiness of the mouth, arising from tartar, other decayed teeth, or want of care in keeping them free from the lodgment of particles of food.
20. It is a common practice to have teeth extracted, when they are affected with pain; but this operation is not always necessary. In many cases, the nerve can be paralyzed, and the tooth plugged. By these means, teeth which, under the ordinary treatment, would be prematurely sacrificed, are often retained, for years, in a serviceable state.
21. The next most destructive affection to which the teeth are liable, is the accumulation of tartar. This is an earthy substance, deposited from the saliva, and is more or less abundant in different individuals. This deposit is extremely troublesome, and generally does much injury to the mouth, even before those who suffer from it are aware of the mischief.
22. The tartar on the teeth of some individuals, is of a black or greenish color, and very hard; on those of others, brown or yellow, and not so firm. When it is first deposited, it is soft, and can be easily removed with a tooth-brush; but, if suffered to remain, it soon becomes indurated, and gradually increases in thickness about the neck of the teeth. The gums become irritated and inflamed. The sockets are next absorbed, and the teeth, being left without their natural support, either fall out, or become so loose, that they can be easily removed.
23. From this cause, old people lose their teeth, when, in many cases, they are perfectly sound; but comparatively very few are aware of the origin of this deprivation, or suppose that these valuable instruments can be retained in old age. The loss is attributed to the deleterious effects of calomel, or is imagined to be an evil inseparable from advanced age.
24. The affection of the gums, arising from causes just mentioned, is frequently called scurvy, and, like caries, produces fetor of the breath; but, when these two diseases are combined, as is frequently the case, they render it extremely offensive. Besides, the effluvia arising from these diseased parts give rise to many maladies which terminate fatally, if a remedy is not applied sufficiently early to save the patient.
25. The obvious remedy for diseases arising from tartar, is the removal of their cause. This is effected by the dentist, with small sharp cutting instruments of a suitable form. To prevent the tartar from accumulating again, and to restore the gums to a healthy state, nothing more is generally requisite than the daily use of a stiff, elastic brush, and the occasional application of some approved dentrifice or astringent wash. Sometimes it may be necessary to scarify the gums, or to apply leeches to them.
26. The operations of dentistry, mentioned in the preceding part of this article, are those which relate to the preservation of the teeth; and, if performed in a proper manner, and under favorable circumstances, they will, in most instances, prove effectual. But, as few persons resort to the dentist, until the near approach of deformity, or until they are impelled by pain to seek relief, a great proportion of dental operations consists in inserting artificial teeth, and in extracting those which are past recovery.
27. When a tooth has gone so far to decay, that it cannot be cured by stopping, it should not be suffered to remain in the mouth, lest it infect the rest. Front teeth, however, when the roots remain sound, and firmly based in the sockets, ought not to be extracted, as upon the latter artificial teeth can be placed with great advantage. In such cases, the removal of the crown only is necessary.
28. The instruments commonly employed in extracting teeth, are the key, or turnkey, the forceps, the hook, and the graver, or punch. These are supposed to be sufficient to perform all the operations of this kind which occur in practice; and, although many attempts have been made to invent others which might answer a better purpose, yet those we have mentioned, in their improved state, are likely to continue in general use.
29. It seems to be a common opinion, that any one can pull teeth, who has a turnkey, and sufficient physical strength to use it; accordingly, blacksmiths, barbers, and medical students, are the chief operators in this line of dental surgery. The many fatal accidents which must inevitably be the consequence, such as breaking the tooth or jaw-bone, are considered matters of course. These, however, seldom happen with skilful dentists; and it is to be regretted, that the latter are not always employed, where unskilfulness may produce such serious consequences.
30. In the cut, at the head of this article, is represented a dentist, about to extract a tooth for a lady, who may be supposed to be in a state of alarm at the sight of the instruments; but he, having thrown his right hand, which holds them, behind him, shows the other containing nothing, with the view of allaying her fears. The manner in which teeth are extracted, needs no description, since it is an every-day operation in all parts of the world.
31. One of the chief sources of income to this profession, is the insertion of artificial teeth; for, although few are willing to expend much to prevent the loss of their teeth, many will incur great expense in supplying the deficiencies, after they have occurred. So perfectly and neatly is this operation performed, by some dentists, that it is difficult to distinguish between teeth which are natural, and those which are artificial.
32. The materials for artificial teeth were formerly found chiefly in the teeth and tusks of the hippopotamus, and in the teeth of some domestic animals; but, within a few years, a mineral composition, called porcelain, has come into great repute, since it is very beautiful, and is entirely proof against the most powerful acids.
33. Surgical operations upon the teeth were performed in ancient Greece and Rome, many of which were similar to those of the present day. The extraction of teeth must have been practised at a period of antiquity to which the records of medicine do not reach. The operation is recommended by Hippocrates, who describes many of the diseases to which the teeth are liable. He also mentions the practice of fixing the teeth by means of gold wire, and gives several formulas for making dentrifices.
34. Celsus, a Roman writer on medicine, who flourished about the beginning of the Christian era, seems to have been the first author who described the method of extracting teeth, and the first who notices the removal of tartar by means of cutting instruments, as well as filling carious teeth with lead and other substances, with the view of preventing further decay. Soon after this period, false teeth, of bone and ivory, were introduced. Actius, a writer of the fourth century, is the first who mentions the operation of filing the teeth.
35. The return of barbarism to Europe, nearly extinguished the knowledge of dentistry. As a branch of surgery, however, it was revived by the Arabian writer, Albucasis, in the tenth century; but, for many hundred years after this period, it received but little attention from men of science, the operations of surgery being confined chiefly to the barbers.
36. The first modern work on the diseases of the teeth was published at Lyons, in 1581. This was followed by many other publications on the same subject, in the succeeding century. In the year 1700, it began to be required in France, that all persons who intended to practise dentistry in that country, should undergo an examination, to test their qualifications. From this period is dated the establishment of the dental art as a distinct branch of medical practice.