[1] Page 92, Vol. I.

[2] Our national library at the British Museum is, perhaps, the only one which does not deserve this reproach.—Ed.

[3] Geschichte der bildenden Kunst, 2nd ed., corrected and augmented, with wood engravings in the text, 8 vols. 8vo. 1865-1873. The first edition consisted of 7 vols., and appeared between 1843 and 1864.

[4] Germany had long felt the want which Schnaase attempted to satisfy. As early as 1841 Franz Kugler published his Handbuch der Kunstgeschichte, which embraces the whole history of art from the earliest times down to our own day. The book was successful; the fourth edition, revised and corrected by Wilhelm Lübke (2 vols. 8vo. 1861, Stuttgart), lies before us, but to give an idea of its inadequacy as a history of ancient art, it is enough to say that the whole of the antique period, both in Greece and Asia, occupies no more than 206 pages of the first volume. The few illustrations are not very good in quality, and their source is never indicated; the draughtsman has taken little care to reproduce with fidelity the style of the originals or to call attention to their peculiarities; finally, the arrangements adopted betray the defects of a severely scientific method. The author commences with Celtic monuments (dolmens and menhirs), and then passes to the structures of Oceania and America; before commencing upon Egypt he takes us to Mexico and Yucatan. Lübke, whilst still occupied with the work of Kugler, wished to supply for the use of students and artists a book of a more elementary character; he therefore published in 1860 an 8vo volume which he called Grundriss der Kunstgeschichte; the antique here occupies 208 pages out of 720. His plan seems to us to be open to the same objection as that of Kugler; he follows a geographical instead of an historical arrangement; he begins with the extreme east; he puts the Assyrians and the Persians before Egypt, and India before Assyria. His illustrations are sometimes better than those of Kugler, but many of the cuts are common to both works.

Under the title Geschichte der Plastik, Overbeck and Lübke have each written a comprehensive history of sculpture. [The word "comprehensive" must here be understood in a strictly limited sense.—Ed.] The word Plastik in the language of German critics has this special and restricted meaning—it comprises sculpture only. The work of Overbeck, far superior to that of Lübke, deserves the success which has attended it; the third edition, which contains the results of the searches at Olympia and at Pergamus, is now in course of publication.

[5] Winckelmann's History of Ancient Art should be read in connection with his Remarks upon the History of Art, which is a kind of supplement to it, and takes the place of that new edition of which the author's premature and tragic death deprived the world. It is an answer to the objections which made themselves heard on every side; the preface to Monumenti inediti (Rome, 1867, 2 vols. in folio, with 208 plates) should also be read. The method of Winckelmann is there most clearly explained. Finally, the student of the life and labours of Winckelmann may consult with profit the interesting work of Carl Iusti, Winckelmann, sein Leben, seine Werke, und seine Zeitgenossen, which will give him a clear idea of the state of archæology at the time when the German savant intervened to place it upon a higher footing.

[6] Zoëga busied himself greatly with Egypt, and in inaugurating the study of Coptic prepared the way for Champollion. But the work which gave him a place among the chief scholars of Winckelmann is unfinished; the Bassirilievi antichi di Roma (Rome, 2 vols. 4to. 1808) only contains the monuments in the Villa Albani, engraved by Piroli, with the help of the celebrated Piranesi. A volume containing most of his essays was given to the world by Welcker in 1817 (Abhandlungen herausgegeben und mit Zusätzen begleitet, 8vo. Göttingen), who also published his life and a volume of his correspondence (Zoëga, Sammlung seiner Briefe und Beurtheilung seiner Werke, 2 vols. 8vo. Stuttgart, 1819).

[7] Il Museo Pio-Clementino, Visconti, vol. i. 1782; by Enn. Quir. Visconti, vols. ii. to vii. Rome, 1784-1807. Museum Worsleyanum, 2 vols. folio. London, 1794. Monumenti Gabini della Villa Pinciana, Visconti, 8vo. 1797. Description des Antiques du Musée Royal, begun by Visconti and continued by the Comte de Clarac. 12mo. Paris, 1820. For the collection of the materials and the execution of the plates in the Iconographie Grecque et Romain, Visconti took advantage of his opportunities as director of the Musée Napoléon, into which the art treasures of all Europe, except England, were collected at the beginning of this century.

[8] They were discovered in 1811 amid the ruins of one of the temples at Ægina, by a company of excavators presided over by Mr. Cockerell. They were bought by Prince Louis of Bavaria in 1812, and Thorwaldsen was occupied during several years in putting together and restoring them. They were first exhibited in the Glyptothek of Munich in 1820.

[9] The débris of the temple at Bassæ was explored by the same company in the year 1812, and a whole frieze was found, which was bought by the British Museum in 1815.

[10] The Antiquities of Athens, Measured and Delineated by J. Stuart and N. Revett. Folio. London, 1761.

[11] Expédition scientifique de Morée, ordonnée par le Gouvernement Français. Architecture, Sculpture, Inscriptions, mesurées, dessinées, recueillies et publiées, par A. Blouet, A. Ravoisié, Alph. Poirot, F. Trézel, et Fr. de Gournay. Paris, 1831-7.

[12] The restoration of the temple of Athenè Polias and of the Parthenon, by Ballu and Paccard, dates from 1845. Since that time the students of the French Academy have drawn and restored all the most important monuments of Greece.

[13] One temple at Baalbec was restored in 1865 by M. Moyau; the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus by M. Bernier in 1878, and the temple of Athenè at Priene by M. Thomas in 1879.

[14] In 1872 this collection consisted of sixty-one restorations, comprising 691 original drawings upon a very large scale, and forming fifty-two bound volumes. Thanks to M. Jules Simon, then Minister of Public Instruction, and M. Charles Blanc, Director of Fine Arts, the publication of the series in its entirety was resolved upon. A commission, with M. Ernest Vinet as secretary, was appointed to superintend the expenditure of an annual grant of 20,000 francs voted by the Chamber. But the work progresses very slowly. In 1881 only five sections had appeared, the most important being the Restauration des Temples de Pæstum, by Labrouste.

[15] F. C. Penrose, An Investigation of the Principles of Athenian Architecture. Folio, with plates. London, 1851.

[16] J. J. Hittorf, Restitution du Temple d'Empédocle à Sèlinonte; ou, l'Architecture polychrome chez les Grecs, 4to. and plates in folio. Paris, 1851.

[17] See upon this subject M. Wolfgang Helbig's Untersuchungen ueber die Campanische Wandmalerei. Leipsic, 1873. M. Boissier has summed up the leading opinions in this matter in an interesting article in the Révue des Deux Mondes, entitled Les Peintures d'Herculaneum et de Pompéi (October 1, 1879).

[18] Rapporto intorno i Vasi Volcenti (Annali dell' Instituto di Corrispondenza Archeologica, vol. iii. p. 5).

[19] One of the first antiquaries to whom it occurred that the examination of these little objects might lead to profitable results was the Comte de Caylus, a savant who is in some danger of being forgotten, and who deserves that his claims to our gratitude should be recalled to the public mind. The work in which he has brought together the fruits of a long life spent in travelling, in collecting, and in examining the technical processes of the ancients, both by himself and with the help of specialists, may be consulted with advantage (Recueil d' Antiquites égyptiennes, étrusques, grecques, et romains, 6 vols. 4to. 1752-64. Supplement, 1 vol. 4to. 1767).

[20] Recherches sur les Figures de Femmes voilées dans l'Art Grec, 4to. Paris, 1873. Recherches sur un Groupe de Praxitèle, d'après les Figurines de terre cuite, 8vo. Paris, 1875. Les Figurines antiques de terre cuite du Musée du Louvre, 4to. 1878, Morel.

[21] For the history of the Instituto Archeologico, the notice written for the celebration, in 1879, of the fiftieth anniversary of its foundation, may be consulted. It is from the pen of Michaëlis, one of the most learned of modern German archæologists, and bears the following title: Storia dell' Instituto Archeologico Germano, 1829-1879, strenna pubblicata nell' occasione della festa del 21 Aprile, 1879, dalla direzione centrale dell' Instituto Archeologico, 8vo. Roma, 1879. It was also published in German. An article by M. Ernest Vinet in the volume entitled L'Art et l'Archéologie (pp. 74-91, 8vo. Didier, 1874), upon the origin and labours of the Instituto, will also be found interesting.

[22] Léo Joubert, Essais de critique et d'histoire (Paris, Firmin-Didot, 1 vol. 1863, p. 4). We shall never cease to regret that politics have deprived literature of this judicious and widely instructed critic.

[23] Kunstarchæologische Werke. Berlin, Calvary, 18 mo. 1873.

[24] Handbuch der Archæologie der Kunst, 1 vol. 8vo.

[25] The French translation, from the pen of M. P. Nicard, forms three volumes of the collection of handbooks known under the name of the Encyclopédie Roret. It appeared in 1841, so that the translator was unable to make use of the additions and corrections with which Welcker enriched the edition of 1848. But M. Nicard's edition has one great advantage over the German versions in the complete tables with which it is provided. The best English translation is that by J. Leitch, the second edition of which appeared in 1850.—Ed.

[26] Stark died at Heidelberg in October, 1879. The title of his work was identical with that of Müller: Handbuch der Archæologie der Kunst. The first 256 pages of the first volume were published in 1878 with the sub-title: Einleitender und grundlegender Theil (Leipsic, Engelmann, 8vo). A second instalment appeared in 1880, by which the introduction was completed. The entire work, which will not be continued, was to have formed three volumes. We explained its plan and made some remarks upon the part already published in the Revue Critique of July 14, 1879.

[27] Journal of a Tour in Asia Minor, with Comparative Remarks on the Ancient and Modern Geography of that Country (1 vol. in 8vo. London, Murray, 1821, pp. 31-33).

[28] A Description of some Ancient Monuments with Inscriptions still existing in Lydia and Phrygia. London, 1842, in folio.

[29] Timæus, p. 22.

[30] Dictionnaire archéologique de la Gaule, vol. i., Cavernes, figure 28. Al. Bertrand, Archéologie celtique et gauloise (1 vol. 8vo. Didier, 1876, p. 68).

[31] Schliemann, Mycenæ, see figs. 33 and 213; Cesnola, Cyprus, see pls. 44 and 46.

[32] Archæological Survey of India, 3 vols. 1871-73.

[33] Archæologische Zeitung, 1876, p. 90. Die Griechische Kunst in Indien.

[34] The Louvre has lately acquired some curious examples of this art.

[35] Histoire de l'Art; Huber's preface to his translation, p. xxxii.

[36] The word "plastic" is used throughout this work in its widest significance, and is not confined to works "in the round."—Ed.

[37] Herodotus, ii. 7.

[38] Mariette, Itineraire de la haute Égypte, p. 10 (edition of 1872, 1 vol. Alexandria, Mourès).

[39] The river should rise to this height upon the Nilometer at Cairo if there is to be a "good Nile." In upper Egypt the banks of the river are much higher than in middle Egypt. In order to flow over those banks it must rise to a height of some eleven or twelve metres, and unless it rises more than thirteen metres it will not have a proper effect.

[40] This work of Champollion's, to which we are greatly indebted, is entitled: Monuments de l'Égypte et de la Nubie, 4 vols. folio. It contains 511 plates, partly coloured, and was published between the years 1833 and 1845. The drawings for the plates were made by members of the great scientific expedition of which Champollion was the head. Many of those drawings were from the pencil of Nestor L'Hôte, one of those who have most sympathetically rendered the Egyptian monuments.

[41] This advantage was thoroughly appreciated by the ancients. Diodorus Siculus, speaking of the Egyptians, says that "At the beginning of all things, the first men were born in Egypt, in consequence of the happy climate of the country and the physical properties of the Nile, whose waters, by their natural fertility and their power of producing various kinds of aliment, were well fitted to nourish the first beings who received the breath of life.... It is evident that from the foundation of the world Egypt was, of all countries, the most favourable to the generation of men and women, by the excellent constitution of its soil" (i. 10).

[42] In all ages the rod has, in Egypt, played an important part in the collection of the taxes. In this connection M. Lieblein has quoted a passage from the well-known letter from the chief guardian of the archives of Ameneman to the scribe Pentaour, in which he says: "The scribe of the port arrives at the station; he collects the tax; there are agents with rattans, and negroes with branches of palm; they say 'Give us some corn!' and they are not to be repulsed. The peasant is bound and sent to the canal; he is driven on with violence, his wife is bound in his presence, his children are stripped; as for his neighbours, they are far off and are busy over their own harvest." (Les Récits de Recolte dans l'ancienne Égypte, comme Éléments chronologique, in Recueil de Travaux relatifs à la Philologie et à l'Archéologie égyptiennes et assyriennes, t. i. p. 149).

[43] Robiou, Histoire ancienne des Peuples de l'Orient, ch. v.

[44] Herodotus, ii. 4.

[45] Maspero, Histoire ancienne des Peuples de l'Orient, pp. 6 and 7. In such general explanations as are unavoidable we shall content ourselves with paraphrasing M. Maspero.

[46] Their exceptional breadth of shoulder has been confirmed by an examination of the skeletons in the mummies. See on this subject a curious note in Bonomi's Some Observations on the Skeleton of an Egyptian Mummy (Transactions of the Society of Biblical Archæology, vol. iv. pp. 251-253).

[47] Maspero, Histoire ancienne, p. 16.

[48] Notice des principaux Monuments exposés dans les Galeries provisoires du Musée d' Antiquités égyptiennes de S. A. le Vice-Roi, à Boulaq (1876), No. 492. The actual statue holds the bâton in its left hand.

[49] Notice des principaux Monuments exposés dans les Galeries provisoires du Musée d' Antiquités égyptiennes de S. A. le Vice-Roi, à Boulaq (1876), p. 582. With the exception of a few woodcuts from photographs the contents of the museums at Cairo and Boulak have been reproduced from drawings by M. J. Bourgoin. The Boulak Museum will be referred to by the simple word Boulak. The reproductions of objects in the Louvre are all from the pencil of M. Saint-Elme Gautier.

[50] Maspero, Histoire ancienne, p. 17.

[51] Histoire des Langues sémitiques, Book i. ch. ii. § 4.

[52] See Lepsius, Ueber die Annahme eines sogenannten prehistorischen Steinalters in Ægypten (in the Zeitschrift für Ægyptische Sprache, 1870, p. 113, et seq.).

[53] Maspero, p. 18.

[54] Histoire ancienne des Peuples de l'Orient, p. 53. We believe that the division proposed by M. Maspero is, in fact, the best. It is the most suggestive of the truth as to the successive displacements of the political centre and the movement of history. We shall, however, have no hesitation in making use of the terms Ancient, Middle, and New Empire, as occasion arises.

[55] Mariette, Aperçu de l'Histoire d'Égypte, p. 66.

[56] Brugsch-Bey, Histoire de l'Égypt, pp. 6 and 7. Maspero's Histoire ancienne, p. 382, may also be consulted upon the character of the Ethiopian kingdom and the monuments of Napata. A good idea of this process of degradation may be gained by merely glancing through the plates to part v. of Lepsius's Denkmæler; plate 6, for example, shows what the caryatid became at Napata.

[57] Maspero, Histoire ancienne, p. 58. This affiliation of the king to the god was more than a figure of speech. In an inscription which is reproduced both at Ipsamboul and at Medinet-Abou, Ptah is made to speak in the following terms of Rameses II. and Rameses III. respectively: "I am thy father, as a god I have begotten thee; all thy members are divine; when I approached thy royal mother I took upon me the form of the sacred ram of Mendes" (line 3rd). This curious text has lately been interpreted by E. Naville (Society of Biblical Archæology, vol. vii. pp. 119-138). The monarchy of the Incas was founded upon an almost identical belief.

[58] See the account of the visit to Heliopolis of the conquering Ethiopian, Piankhi-Mer-Amen; we shall quote the text of this famous inscription in our chapter upon the Egyptian temple.

[59] Fr. Lenormant, Manuel d'Histoire ancienne, t. 1, pp. 485-486. The most celebrated of these is the famous Chamber of Ancestors from Karnak, which is now preserved in the Bibliothèque Nationale at Paris.

[60] The beaters for the great hunts which took place in the Delta and the Fayoum were procured in the same fashion. These hunts were among the favourite pleasures of the kings and the great lords. See Maspero, Le Papyrus Mallet, p. 58 (in Recueil de Travaux, etc. t. 1).

[61] The work to which we here refer is the Histoire de l'Art Égyptien d'après les Monuments, 2 vols. folio. Arthus Bertrand, 1878. As the plates are not numbered, we can only refer to them generally.

[62] "The foundations of the great temple at Abydos, commenced by Seti I. and finished by Rameses II., consist of but a single course of generally ill-balanced masonry. Hence the settling which has taken place, and the deep fissure which divides the building in the direction of its major axis."—Mariette, Voyage dans la Haute-Égypte, p. 59. The same writer speaks of Karnak in a similar strain: "The Pharaonic temples are built, as a rule, with extreme carelessness. The western pylon, for instance, fell because it was hollow, which made the inclination of the walls a source of weakness instead of strength."—Itineraire, p. 179.

[63] Herodotus, ii. 172. For an earlier epoch, see the history of a certain Ahmes, son of Abouna, as it is narrated upon his sepulchral inscription, which dates from the reign of Amosis, the founder of the eighteenth dynasty (De Rougé, Mémoire sur l'Inscription d'Ahmes, Chef des Nautoniers, 4to. 1851, and Brugsch, Histoire d'Égypte, t. i. p. 80). Starting as a private soldier for the war against the Shepherds, undertaken for the re-conquest of Avaris, he was noticed by the king for his frequent acts of gallantry, and promoted until he finally became something in the nature of high admiral.

[64] Louvre, c. i. Cf. Maspero, un Gouverneur de Thèbes au temps de la douzième dynastie.

[65] Quoted by Maspero, Conférence sur l'Histoire des Âmes dans l'Égypte ancienne, d'après les Monuments du Musée du Louvre (Association scientifique de France, Bulletin hebdomadaire, No. 594; 23 Mars, 1879).

[66] Translated by Maspero (la Grande Inscription de Beni-Hassan in the Recueil de Travaux relatifs à la Philologie et à l'Archéologie égyptienne et assyrienne (t. i. pp. 173-174)).

[67] Brugsch-Bey, Histoire d'Égypte, pp. 14, 15.

[68] The saying of one of the characters of Petronius might be applied to Egypt: "This country is so thickly peopled with divinities that it is easier to find a god than a man." The place held by religious observances in the daily life of Egypt is clearly indicated by Herodotus (ii. 37): "The Egyptians," he says, "are very religious; they surpass all other nations in the adoration with which they regard their deities."

[69] Maspero, Histoire ancienne, pp. 26, 27.

[70] This formula frequently occurs in the texts. To cite but one occasion, we find upon a Theban invocation to Amen, translated by P. Pierret (Recueil de Travaux relatifs à la Philologie et à l'Archéologie égyptienne et assyrienne, t. i. p. 70), at the third line of the inscription: "Sculptor, thou modelest thine own members; thou begettest them, not having thyself been begotten."

[71] See the fine hymns quoted and translated by M. Maspero in his Histoire ancienne, pp. 30-37.

[72] Several of the bronzes which we reproduce may belong to the Ptolemaic epoch; but they are repetitions of types and attributes which had been fixed for many centuries by tradition. It is in this capacity chiefly that we reproduce them, as examples of those forms which seemed to the Egyptian imagination to offer the most satisfactory emblems of their gods.

[73] In his work entitled Des deux Yeux du Disque solaire, M. Grébaut seems to have very clearly indicated how far we are justified in saying that Egyptian religious speculation at times approached monotheism (Recueil de Travaux, etc., t. i. p. 120).

[74] Herodotus, ii. 75-86.

[75] We do not mean to say that the higher qualities of the Egyptian religion were then altogether lost. In Roman Egypt the fetish superstitions were no doubt predominant, but still it had not lost all that theological erudition which it had accumulated by its own intellectual energy. In an inscription cut in the time of Philip the Arab, we find an antique hymn transcribed in hieroglyphs upon the wall of a temple. We find abstract and speculative ideas in all those Egyptian books which have come down to us, in a form which betrays the last two centuries of the Empire. Alexandria had its Egyptian Serapeum by the side of its Greek one. Monuments are to be found there which are Egyptian in every particular. Gnosticism was particularly successful in Egypt, which was predestined to accept it by the whole of its past. Certain doctrines of Plotinus are thus best explained. More than one purely Egyptian notion may be found interpreted in the works of Alexandrian philosophers and in the phraseology of Greek philosophy. The principal sanctuaries did not allow their rites and ceremonies to fall into disuse. Although Thebes was nothing but a heap of ruins, a dead city visited for its relics of the past, the worship of Vulcan, that is of Ptah, at Memphis, was carried on up to the establishment of Christianity. That of Isis, at Philæ, lasted until the time of Justinian. Diocletian negotiated a treaty with the Blemmyes, those people of Nubia who were at one time such redoubtable soldiers, which guaranteed to them the free use of that temple. It was not converted into a church until after the destruction of the Blemmyes by Silco and the Christian kings of Ethiopia.

The old religion and theology of the Egyptians did not expire in a single day. It was no more killed by the Roman conquest than it was by that of the Ptolemies. But although its rites did not cease, and some of its elaborate doctrines still continued to be transmitted, its vitality had come to an end. It exercised some remains of influence only on condition of being melted down and re-modelled in the crucible of Greek philosophy. A little coterie of thinkers set themselves to complete this transfusion, but the great mass of the people returned to simple practices which had been sanctified by thousands of years, and formed nearly the whole of their religion.

[76]

[77] Clemens Alexandrinus, quoted by Maspero, Histoire ancienne, p. 46.

[78] This was perceived by the President de Brosses, a savant with few advantages but a bold and inquiring spirit, to whom the language is indebted for the use of the term fetishism as a name for a definite state of religious conception. We can still read with interest the book which he published anonymously in 1760, under the title: Du Culte des Dieux fétiches; ou, Parallèle de l'Ancienne Religion de l'Égypte avec la Religion actuelle de Nigritie (12mo). The study of the fetish elements of the Egyptian religion has been resumed lately with competent knowledge and talent by a German egyptologist, Herr Pietschmann, in an essay which appeared in 1878 in the Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, which is published in Berlin under the direction of M. Virchow. It is called Der Ægyptische Fetischdienst und Götterglaube—Prolegomena zur Ægyptischen Mythologie (28 pp. 8vo). A great many judicious observations and curious facts are to be found in it; the realistic and materialistic character of the Egyptian conceptions are very well grasped; it is perhaps to be regretted that the author has not endeavoured to make the creeds to which he gives this name of fétichisme somewhat clearer, and to show by what workings of the mind they were adopted and abandoned. With regard to the Egyptian religion, we shall find treated, in the excellent Manuel de l'Histoire des Religions, by Tiele, which M. Maurice Vernes has just translated from the Dutch (1 vol. 12mo, Ernest Leroux, 1880), views much the same as those which we have just described. The author denominates the religious state which we call fetishism animism, but he points out the fact that this class of conceptions had a perennial influence over the Egyptian mind. "The Egyptian religion," he says, "like the Chinese, was nothing to begin with but an organised animism." He finds traces of this animism in the worship of the dead, the deification of the kings, and the adoration of animals. From his point of view the custom of placing a symbol of the divinity rather than an image in the temple, must be traced to fetishism (pp. 44 and 45 of the French version).

[79] Pierret, Dictionnaire d'Archéologie Égyptienne.

[80] See in L'Oiseau the chapter-headed L'Épuration. With his genius for history and poetry Michelet has well understood the sentiment which gave birth to these primitive forms of worship, forms which have too long provoked unjust contempt. The whole of this beautiful chapter should be read; we shall only quote a few lines: "In America the law protects these public benefactors. Egyptian law does still more for them—it respects them and loves them. Although they no longer enjoy their ancient worship, they receive the friendly hospitality of man as in the time of Pharaoh. If you ask an Egyptian fellah why he allows himself to be besieged and deafened by birds, why he patiently suffers the insolence of the crow perched upon the horn of the buffalo, on the hump of a camel, or fighting upon the date-trees and shaking down the fruit, he will say nothing. Birds are allowed to do anything. Older than the Pyramids, they are the ancients of the country. Man's existence depends upon them, upon the persevering labour of the ibis, the stork, the crow and the vulture."

[81] Maspero, Notes sur différents Points de Grammaire et d'Histoire dans le Recueil de Travaux relatifs à la Philologie et à l'Archéologie égyptienne et assyrienne, vol. i. p. 157.

[82] Herodotus, ii. 42.

[83] James Darmesteter, Le Dieu supréme dans la Mythologie indo-européenne (in the Revue de l'Histoire des Religions, 1880).

[84] τὴν αὐτὴν δὲ τέχνην ἀπειργασμένα, etc. Laws, 656. D. E. [We have quoted from Professor Jowett's English version, p. 226, vol. v.—Ed.]

[85] Cours d'Archéologie, 8vo. 1829, pp. 10, 11. This critic's ideas upon Egyptian art were both superficial and false. "Egyptian art," he says, "never attempted any realistic imitation." We even find sentences utterly devoid of meaning, such as, for instance, "The fundamental principle of Egyptian art was the absence of art." (p. 12.)

[86] See the Revue des Deux Mondes of April 1, 1865.

[87] Voyage dans la Haute Égypte, vol. i.

[88] M. Melchoir de Vogüé, Chez les Pharaons (Revue des Deux Mondes of Jan. 15, 1877).