The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Golden Bough (Third Edition, Vol. 4 of 12) by James George Frazer

For examples see M. Dobrizhoffer, Historia de Abiponibus (Vienna, 1784), ii. 92 sq., 240 sqq.; C. Gay, “Fragment d'un voyage dans le Chili et au Cusco,” Bulletin le la Société de Géographie (Paris), Deuxième Série, xix. (1843) p. 25; H. Delaporte, “Une Visite chez les Araucaniens,” Bulletin de la Société de Géographie (Paris), Quatrième Série, x. (1855) p. 30; K. von den Steinen, Unter den Naturvölkern Zentral-Brasiliens (Berlin, 1894), pp. 344, 348; E. F. im Thurn, Among the Indians of Guiana (London, 1883), pp. 330 sq.; A. G. Morice, “The Canadian Dénés,” Annual Archaeological Report, 1905; (Toronto, 1906), p. 207; (Sir) George Grey, Journals of Two Expeditions of Discovery into North-West and Western Australia (London, 1841), ii. 238; A. Oldfield, “The Aborigines of Australia,” Transactions of the Ethnological Society of London, N.S. iii. (1865) p. 236; J. Dawson, Australian Aborigines (Melbourne, Sydney, and Adelaide, 1881), p. 63; Rev. G. Taplin, “The Narrinyeri,” Native Tribes of South Australia (Adelaide, 1879), p. 25; C. W. Schürmann, “The Aboriginal Tribes of Port Lincoln,” Native Tribes of South Australia, p. 237; H. E. A. Meyer, in Native Tribes of South Australia, p. 195; R. Brough Smyth, The Aborigines of Victoria (Melbourne, 1878), i. 110, ii. 289 sq.; W. Stanbridge, in Transactions of the Ethnological Society of London, New Series, i. (1861) p. 299; L. Fison and A. W. Howitt, Kamilaroi and Kurnai, pp. 250 sq.; A. L. P. Cameron, “Notes on some Tribes of New South Wales,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xiv. (1885) pp. 361, 362 sq.; W. Ridley, Kamilaroi, Second Edition (Sydney, 1875), p. 159; Baldwin Spencer and F. J. Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia (London, 1899), pp. 46-48; Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits, v. (Cambridge, 1904) pp. 248, 323; E. Beardmore, “The Natives of Mowat, British New Guinea,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xix. (1890) p. 461; R. E. Guise, “On the Tribes inhabiting the Mouth of the Wanigela River, New Guinea,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxviii. (1899) p. 216; C. G. Seligmann, The Melanesians of British New Guinea (Cambridge, 1910), p. 279; K. Vetter, Komm herüber und hilf uns! oder die Arbeit der Neuen-Dettelsauer Mission, iii. (Barmen, 1898) pp. 10 sq.; id., in Nachrichten über Kaiser-Wilhelmsland und den Bismarck-Archipel, 1897, pp. 94, 98; A. Deniau, “Croyances religieuses et mœurs des indigènes de l'ile Malo,” Missions Catholiques, xxxiii. (1901) pp. 315 sq.; C. Ribbe, Zwei Jahre unter den Kannibalen der Salomo-Inseln (Dresden-Blasewitz, 1903), p. 268; P. A. Kleintitschen, Die Küstenbewohner der Gazellehalbinsel (Hiltrup bei Münster, n.d.), p. 344; P. Rascher, “Die Sulka,” Archiv für Anthropologie, xxix. (1904) pp. 221 sq.; R. Parkinson, Dreissig Jahre in der Südsee (Stuttgart, 1907), pp. 199-201; G. Brown, D.D., Melanesians and Polynesians (London, 1910), p. 176; Father Abinal, “Astrologie Malgache,” Missions Catholiques, xi. (1879) p. 506; A. Grandidier, “Madagascar,” Bulletin de la Société de Géographie (Paris), Sixième Série, iii. (1872) p. 399; Father Campana, “Congo, Mission Catholique de Landana,” Missions Catholiques, xxvii. (1895) pp. 102 sq.; Th. Masui, Guide de la Section de l'État Indépendant du Congo à l'Exposition de Bruxelles-Tervueren en 1897 (Brussels, 1897), p. 82. The discussion of this and similar evidence must be reserved for another work.

C. Meiners, Geschichte der Religionen (Hannover, 1806-1807), i. 48.

R. I. Dodge, Our Wild Indians, p. 112.

F. Blumentritt, “Der Ahnencultus und die religiösen Anschauungen der Malaien des Philippinen-Archipels,” Mittheilungen d. Wiener geogr. Gesellschaft, 1882, p. 198.

Sir James E. Alexander, Expedition of Discovery into the Interior of Africa, i. 166; H. Lichtenstein, Reisen im Südlichen Africa (Berlin, 1811-1812), i. 349 sq.; W. H. I. Bleek, Reynard the Fox in South Africa (London, 1864), pp. 75 sq.; Theophilus Hahn, Tsuni-Goam, the Supreme Being of the Khoi-Khoi (London, 1881), pp. 56, 69.

Callimachus, Hymn to Zeus, 9 sq.; Diodorus Siculus, iii. 61; Lucian, Philopseudes, 3; id., Jupiter Tragoedus, 45; id., Philopatris, 10; Porphyry, Vita Pythagorae, 17; Cicero, De natura deorum, iii. 21. 53; Pomponius Mela, ii. 7. 112; Minucius Felix, Octavius, 21; Lactantius, Divin. instit. i. II.

Plutarch, Isis et Osiris, 35; Philochorus, Fragm. 22, in C. Müller's Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum, i. p. 378; Tatian, Oratio ad Graecos, 8, ed. Otto; J. Tzetzes, Schol. on Lycophron, 208. Compare Ch. Petersen, “Das Grab und die Todtenfeier des Dionysos,” Philologus, xv. (1860) pp. 77-91. The grave of Dionysus is also said to have been at Thebes (Clemens Romanus, Recognitiones, x. 24; Migne's Patrologia Graeca, i. col. 1434).

Porphyry, Vit. Pythag. 16.

Philochorus, Fr. 184, in C. Müller's Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum, ii. p. 414.

Ch. Lobeck, Aglaophamus (Königsberg, 1829), pp. 574 sq.

G. Maspero, Histoire ancienne des peuples de l'Orient classique: les origines, pp. 108-111, 116-118. On the mortality of the Egyptian gods see further A. Moret, Le Rituel du culte divin journalier en Égypte (Paris, 1902), pp. 219 sqq.

Plutarch, Isis et Osiris, 21, 22, 38, 61; Diodorus Siculus, i. 27. 4; Dittenberger, Orientis Graeci inscriptiones selectae, i. No. 56, p. 102.

A. Wiedemann, Die Religion der alten Aegypter, pp. 59 sq.; G. Maspero, Histoire ancienne des peuples de l'Orient classique: les origines, pp. 104-108, 150. Indeed it was an article of the Egyptian creed that every god must die after he had begotten a son in his own likeness (A. Wiedemann, Herodots zweites Buch, p. 204). Hence the Egyptian deities were commonly arranged in trinities of a simple and natural type, each comprising a father, a mother, and a son. “Speaking generally, two members of such a triad were gods, one old and one young, and the third was a goddess, who was, naturally, the wife, or female counterpart, of the older god. The younger god was the son of the older god and goddess, and he was supposed to possess all the attributes and powers which belonged to his father.... The feminine counterpart or wife of the chief god was usually a local goddess of little or no importance; on the other hand, her son by the chief god was nearly as important as his father, because it was assumed that he would succeed to his rank and throne when the elder god had passed away. The conception of the triad or trinity is, in Egypt, probably as old as the belief in gods, and it seems to be based on the anthropomorphic views which were current in the earliest times about them” (E. A. Wallis Budge, The Gods of the Egyptians, London, 1904, i. 113 sq.). If the Christian doctrine of the Trinity took shape under Egyptian influence, the function originally assigned to the Holy Spirit may have been that of the divine mother. In the apocryphal Gospel to the Hebrews, as Mr. F. C. Conybeare was kind enough to point out to me, Christ spoke of the Holy Ghost as his mother. The passage is quoted by Origen (Comment. in Joan. II. vol. iv. col. 132, ed. Migne), and runs as follows: “My mother the Holy Spirit took me a moment ago by one of my hairs and carried me away to the great Mount Tabor.” Compare Origen, In Jeremiam Hom. XV. 4, vol. iii. col. 433, ed. Migne. In the reign of Trajan a certain Alcibiades, from Apamea in Syria, appeared at Rome with a volume in which the Holy Ghost was described as a stalwart female about ninety-six miles high and broad in proportion. See Hippolytus, Refut. omnium haeresium, ix. 13, p. 462, ed. Duncker and Schneidewin. The Ophites represented the Holy Spirit as “the first woman,” “mother of all living,” who was beloved by “the first man” and likewise by “the second man,” and who conceived by one or both of them “the light, which they call Christ.” See H. Usener, Das Weihnachtsfest, pp. 116 sq., quoting Irenaeus, i. 28. As to a female member of the Trinity, see further id., Dreiheit, ein Versuch mythologischer Zahlenlehre (Bonn, 1903), pp. 41 sqq.; Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, ch. 1. vol. ix. p. 261, note g (Edinburgh, 1811). Mr. Conybeare tells me that Philo Judaeus, who lived in the first half of the first century of our era, constantly defines God as a Trinity in Unity, or a Unity in Trinity, and that the speculations of this Alexandrian Jew deeply influenced the course of Christian thought on the mystical nature of the deity. Thus it seems not impossible that the ancient Egyptian doctrine of the divine Trinity may have been distilled through Philo into Christianity. On the other hand it has been suggested that the Christian Trinity is of Babylonian origin. See H. Zimmern, in E. Schrader's Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament,3 pp. 418 sq., 440.

L. W. King, Babylonian Religion and Mythology (London, 1899), p. 8.

Plutarch, De defectu oraculorum, 17.

This is in substance the explanation briefly suggested by F. Liebrecht, and developed more fully and with certain variations of detail by S. Reinach. See F. Liebrecht, Des Gervasius von Tilbury Otia Imperialia (Hanover, 1856), p. 180; S. Reinach, Cultes, mythes et religions, iii. (Paris, 1908), pp. 1 sqq. As to the worship of Tammuz or Adonis in Syria and Greece see my Adonis, Attis, Osiris, Second Edition (London, 1907). In Plutarch's narrative confusion seems to have arisen through the native name (Tammuz) of the deity, which either accidentally coincided with that of the pilot (as S. Reinach thinks) or was erroneously transferred to him by a narrator (as F. Liebrecht supposed). An entirely different explanation of the story has been proposed by Dr. W. H. Roscher. He holds that the god whose death was lamented was the great ram-god of Mendes in Egypt, whom Greek writers constantly mistook for a goat-god and identified with Pan. A living ram was always revered as an incarnation of the god, and when it died there was a great mourning throughout all the land of Mendes. Some stone coffins of the sacred animal have been found in the ruins of the city. See Herodotus, ii. 46, with A. Wiedemann's commentary; W. H. Roscher, “Die Legende vom Tode des groszen Pan,” Fleckeisen's Jahrbücher für classische Philologie, xxxviii. (1892) pp. 465-477. Dr. Roscher shews that Thamus was an Egyptian name, comparing Plato, Phaedrus, p. 274 d e; Polyaenus, iii. 2. 5; Philostratus, Vit. Apollon. Tyan. vi. 5. 108. As to the worshipful goat, or rather ram, of Mendes, see also Diodorus Siculus, i. 84; Strabo, xvii. 1. 19, p. 802; Clement of Alexandria, Protrept. ii. 39, p. 34, ed. Potter; Suidas, s.v. Μένδην.

F. Liebrecht, op. cit. pp. 180 sq.; W. Robertson Smith, Religion of the Semites,2 pp. 412, 414. The latter writer observes with justice that “the wailing for 'Uncūd, the divine Grape-cluster, seems to be the last survival of an old vintage piaculum.” “The dread of the worshippers,” he adds, “that the neglect of the usual ritual would be followed by disaster, is particularly intelligible if they regarded the necessary operations of agriculture as involving the violent extinction of a particle of divine life.” On the mortality of the gods in general and of the Teutonic gods in particular, see J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 i. 263 sqq.; compare E. H. Meyer, Mythologie der Germanen (Strasburg, 1903), p. 288. As to the mortality of the Irish gods, see Douglas Hyde, Literary History of Ireland (London, 1899), pp. 80 sq.

“Der Muata Cazembe und die Völkerstämme der Maravis, Chevas, Muembas, Lundas und andere von Süd-Afrika,” Zeitschrift für allgemeine Erdkunde, vi. (1856) p. 395; F. T. Valdez, Six Years of a Traveller's Life in Western Africa (London, 1861), ii. 241 sq.

See Taboo and the Perils of the Soul, pp. 6, 7 sq.

See Taboo and the Perils of the Soul, pp. 26 sqq.

W. W. Gill, Myths and Songs of the South Pacific (London, 1876), p. 163.

H. A. Junod, Les Ba-Ronga (Neuchatel, 1898), pp. 381 sq.

W. Barbrooke Grubb, An Unknown People in an Unknown Land (London, 1911), p. 120.

T. C. Hodson, The Naga Tribes of Manipur (London, 1911), p. 159.

Rev. J. Roscoe, The Baganda (London, 1911), p. 281.

Ch. Wilkes, Narrative of the U.S. Exploring Expedition (London, 1845), iii. 96.

U.S. Exploring Expedition, Ethnology and Philology, by H. Hale (Philadelphia, 1846), p. 65. Compare Th. Williams, Fiji and the Fijians,2 i. 183; J. E. Erskine, Journal of a Cruise among the Islands of the Western Pacific (London, 1853), p. 248.

G. Turner, Samoa, p. 335.

Martin Flad, A Short Description of the Falasha and Kamants in Abyssinia, p. 19.

H. Diels, Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker,2 i. (Berlin, 1906) p. 81; id., Herakleitos von Ephesos2 (Berlin, 1909), p. 50, Frag. 136, ψυχαὶ ἀρηίφατοι καθαρώτεραι ἢ ἐνὶ νούσοις.

F. de Castelnau, Expédition dans les parties centrales de l'Amérique du Sud, iv. (Paris, 1851) p. 380. Compare id. ii. 49 sq. as to the practice of the Chavantes, a tribe of Indians on the Tocantins river.

R. Southey, History of Brazil, iii. (London, 1819) p. 619; R. F. Burton, in The Captivity of Hans Stade of Hesse (Hakluyt Society, London, 1874), p. 122.

C. von Dittmar, “Über die Koräken und die ihnen sehr nahe verwandten Tschuktschen,” Bulletin de la Classe philologique de l'Académie Impériale des Sciences de St-Pétersbourg, xiii. (1856) coll. 122, 124 sq. The custom has now been completely abandoned. See W. Jochelson, “The Koryak, Religion and Myths” (Leyden and New York, 1905), p. 103 (Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History, The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, vol. vi. part i.).

C. von Dittmar, op. cit. col. 132; De Wrangell, Le Nord de la Sibérie (Paris, 1843), i. 263 sq.; “Die Ethnographie Russlands nach A. F. Rittich,” Petermann's Mittheilungen, Ergänzungsheft, No. 54 (Gotha, 1878), pp. 14 sq.; “Der Anadyr-Bezirk nach A. W. Olssufjew,” Petermann's Mittheilungen, xlv. (1899) p. 230; V. Priklonski, “Todtengebräuche der Jakuten,” Globus, lix. (1891) p. 82; R. von Seidlitz, “Der Selbstmord bei den Tschuktschen,” ib. p. 111; Cremat, “Der Anadyrbezirk Sibiriens und seine Bevölkerung,” Globus, lxvi. (1894) p. 287; H. de Windt, Through the Gold-fields of Alaska to Bering Straits (London, 1898), pp. 223-225; W. Bogaras, “The Chukchee” (Leyden and New York, 1904-1909), pp. 560 sqq. (Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History, The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, vol. vii.).

L. A. Waddell, “The Tribes of the Brahmaputra Valley,” Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, lxix. part iii. (1901) pp. 20, 24; T. C. Hodson, The Naga Tribes of Manipur (London, 1911), p. 151.

K. Simrock, Handbuch der deutschen Mythologie,5 pp. 177 sq., 507; H. M. Chadwick, The Cult of Othin (London, 1899), pp. 13 sq., 34 sq.

Procopius, De bello Gothico, ii. 14.

J. Grimm, Deutsche Rechtsalterthümer,3 p. 488. A custom of putting the sick and aged to death seems to have prevailed in several branches of the Aryan family; it may at one time have been common to the whole stock. See J. Grimm, op. cit. pp. 486 sqq.; O. Schrader, Reallexikon der indogermanischen Altertumskunde, pp. 36-39.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 4 sq.

Taboo and the Perils of the Soul, pp. 5 sq.

J. B. Labat, Relation historique de l'Éthiopie occidentale (Paris, 1732), i. 260 sq.; W. Winwood Reade, Savage Africa (London, 1863), p. 362.

G. Merolla, Relazione del viaggio nel regno di Congo (Naples, 1726), p. 76. The English version of this passage (Pinkerton's Voyages and Travels, xvi. 228) has already been quoted by Sir John Lubbock (Lord Avebury) in his Origin of Civilisation,4 pp. 358 sq. In that version the native title of the pontiff is misspelt.

Diodorus Siculus, iii. 6; Strabo, xvii. 2. 3, p. 822.

R. Lepsius, Letters from Egypt, Ethiopia, and the peninsula of Sinai (London, 1853), pp. 202, 204. I have to thank Dr. E. Westermarck for pointing out these passages to me. Fazoql lies in the fork between the Blue Nile and its tributary the Tumat. See J. Russeger, Reisen in Europa, Asien und Afrika, ii. 2 (Stuttgart, 1844), p. 552 note.

Brun-Rollet, Le Nil Blanc et le Soudan (Paris, 1855), pp. 248 sq. For the orgiastic character of these annual festivals, see id. p. 245. Fazolglou is probably the same as Fazoql. The people who practise the custom are called Bertat by E. Marno (Reisen im Gebiete des blauen und weissen Nil (Vienna, 1874), p. 68).

J. Russegger, Reisen in Europa, Asien und Afrika, ii. 2, p. 553. Russegger met Assusa in January 1838, and says that the king had then been a year in office. He does not mention the name of the king's uncle who had, he tells us, been strangled by the chiefs; but I assume that he was the Yassin who is mentioned by Brun-Rollet. Russegger adds that the strangling of the king was performed publicly, and in the most solemn manner, and was said to happen often in Fazoql and the neighbouring countries.

R. Lepsius, Letters from Egypt, Ethiopia, and the peninsula of Sinai (London, 1853), p. 204. Lepsius's letter is dated “The Pyramids of Meroë, 22nd April 1844.” His informant was Osman Bey, who had lived for sixteen years in these regions. An anqareb or angareb is a kind of bed made by stretching string or leather thongs over an oblong wooden framework.

I have to thank Dr. Seligmann for his kindness and courtesy in transmitting to me his unpublished account and allowing me to draw on it at my discretion.

As to Jŭok (Čuok), the supreme being of the Shilluk, see P. W. Hofmayr, “Religion der Schilluk,” Anthropos, vi. (1911) pp. 120-122, whose account agrees with the briefer one given by Dr. C. G. Seligmann. Otiose supreme beings (dieux fainéants) of this type, who having made the world do not meddle with it and to whom little or no worship is paid, are common in Africa.

P. W. Hofmayr, “Religion der Schilluk,” Anthropos, vi. (1911) pp. 123, 125. This writer gives Nykang as the name of the first Shilluk king.

P. W. Hofmayr, op. cit. p. 123.

This is the view both of Dr. C. G. Seligmann and of Father P. W. Hofmayr (op. cit. p. 123).

The word kengo is applied only to the shrines of Nyakang and the graves of the kings. Graves of commoners are called roro.

On the use of flowing blood in rain-making ceremonies see The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, i. 256, 257 sq.

Dr. C. G. Seligmann, The Shilluk Divine Kings (in manuscript).

On this subject Dr. Seligmann writes to me (March 9th, 1911) as follows: “The assumption of the throne as the result of victory in single combat doubtless occurred once; at the present day and perhaps for the whole of the historic period it has been superseded by the ceremonial killing of the king, but I regard these stories as folk-lore indicating what once really happened.”

These particulars I take from letters of Dr. C. G. Seligmann's to me (dated 8th February and 9th March 1911). They are not mentioned in the writer's paper on the subject.

When one of the king's wives is with child, she remains at Fashoda till the fourth or fifth month of her pregnancy; she is then sent away to a village, not necessarily her own, where she remains under the charge of the village chief until she has finished nursing the child. Afterwards she returns to Fashoda, but the child invariably remains in the village of his or her birth and is brought up there. All royal children of either sex, in whatever part of the Shilluk territory they may happen to die, are buried the village where they were born.

As to the disappearance of the early Roman kings see The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, vol. ii. pp. 312 sqq.; as to the disappearance of the early kings of Uganda, see the Rev. J. Roscoe, The Baganda (London, 1911), p. 214.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, i. 1 sqq., ii. 376 sqq.

“E. de Pruyssenaere's Reisen und Forschungen im Gebiete des Weissen und Blauen Nil,” Petermann's Mittheilungen, Ergänzungsheft, No. 50 (Gotha, 1877), pp. 18-23. Compare G. Schweinfurth, The Heart of Africa, Third Edition (London, 1878), i. 48 sqq. In the text I have followed de Pruyssenaere's description of the privations endured by the Dinka in the dry season. But that description is perhaps only applicable in seasons of unusual drought, for Dr. C. G. Seligmann, writing from personal observation, informs me that he regards the description as much overdrawn; in an average year, he tells me, the cattle do not die of famine and the natives are not starving. According to his information the drinking of the blood of their cattle is a luxury in which the Dinka indulge themselves at any time of the year.

For this and the following information as to the religion, totemism, and rain-makers of the Dinka I am indebted to the kindness of Dr. C. G. Seligmann, who investigated the Shilluk and Dinka in 1909-1910 and has most obligingly placed his manuscript materials at my disposal.

On the importance of the rain-makers among the Dinka and other tribes of the Upper Nile, see The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, i. 345 sqq.

Emin Pasha in Central Africa, being a Collection of his Letters and Journals (London, 1888), p. 91; J. G. Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, ii. 529 sq. (from information given by the Rev. John Roscoe).

Father Guillemé, in Annales de la Propagation de la Foi, lx. (1888) p. 258; id., “Credenze religiose dei Negri di Kibanga nell' Alto Congo,” Archivio per lo studio delle tradizioni popolari, vii. (1888) p. 231.

The Travels of the Jesuits in Ethiopia, collected and historically digested by F. Balthazar Tellez, of the Society of Jesus (London, 1710), p. 197. We may compare the death of Saul (1 Samuel, xxxi. 3-6).

Lieut. H. Pope-Hennessy, “Notes on the Jukos and other Tribes of the Middle Benue,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxx. (1900) p. (29).

J. G. Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, ii. 608, on the authority of Mr. H. R. Palmer, Resident in Charge of Katsina.

F. T. Valdez, Six Years of a Traveller's Life in Western Africa (London, 1861), ii. 194 sq.

Nathaniel Isaacs, Travels and Adventures in Eastern Africa (London, 1836), i. 295 sq., compare pp. 232, 290 sq.

The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, i. 392.

J. dos Santos, “Eastern Ethiopia,” in G. McCall Theal's Records of Southeastern Africa, vii. (1901) pp. 194 sq. A more highly-flavoured and full-bodied, though less slavishly accurate, translation of this passage is given in Pinkerton's Voyages and Travels, xvi. 684, where the English translator has enriched the unadorned simplicity of the Portuguese historian's style with “the scythe of time” and other flowers of rhetoric.

J. dos Santos, op. cit. p. 193.

Xenophon, Hellenica, iii. 3. 3; Plutarch, Agesilaus, 3; id., Lysander, 22; Pausanias, iii. 8. 9.

Herodotus, iii. 20; Aristotle, Politics, iv. 4. 4.; Athenaeus, xiii. 20, p. 566. According to Nicolaus Damascenus (Fr. 142, in Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum, ed. C. Müller, iii. p. 463), the handsomest and bravest man was only raised to the throne when the king had no heirs, the heirs being the sons of his sisters. But this limitation is not mentioned by the other authorities.

G. Nachtigal, Saharâ und Sûdân, iii. (Leipsic, 1889) p. 225; A. Bastian, Die deutsche Expedition an der Loango-Küste (Jena, 1874-75), i. 220.

P. W. Joyce, Social History of Ancient Ireland (London, 1903), i. 311.

Strabo, xvii. 2. 3, p. 823; Diodorus Siculus, iii. 7.

Mohammed Ebn-Omar El-Tounsy, Voyage au Darfour (Paris, 1845), pp. 162 sq.; Travels of an Arab Merchant in Soudan, abridged from the French by Bayle St. John (London, 1854), p. 78; Bulletin de la Société de Géographie (Paris), IVme Série, iv. (1852) pp. 539 sq.

R. W. Felkin, “Notes on the Waganda Tribe of Central Africa,” in Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, xiii. (1884-1886) p. 711; J. Roscoe, “Further Notes on the Manners and Customs of the Baganda,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxii. (1902) p. 77 (as to sneezing).

Narrative of Events in Borneo and Celebes, from the Journal of James Brooke, Esq., Rajah of Sarawak, by Captain R. Mundy, i. 134. My friend the late Mr. Lorimer Fison, in a letter of August 26th, 1898, told me that the custom of falling down whenever a chief fell was observed also in Fiji, where it had a special name, bale muri, “fall-follow.”

Mgr. Bruguière, in Annales de l'Association de la Propagation de la Foi, v. (1831) pp. 174 sq.

A. Dalzel, History of Dahomy (London, 1793), pp. 12 sq., 156 sq.

Father Baudin, “Le Fétichisme ou la religion des Nègres de la Guinée,” Missions Catholiques, xvi. (1884) p. 215.

Missionary Holley, “Étude sur les Egbas,” Missions Catholiques, xiii. (1881) pp. 351 sq. Here Oyo is probably the same as Eyeo mentioned above.

Simon Grunau, Preussische Chronik, herausgegeben von Dr. M. Perlbach (Leipsic, 1876), i. p. 97.

Lucian, De morte Peregrini. That Lucian's account of the mountebank's death is not a fancy picture is proved by the evidence of Tertullian, Ad martyres, 4, “Peregrinus qui non olim se rogo immisit.”

D. S. Macgowan, M.D., “Self-immolation by Fire in China,” The Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal, xix. (1888) pp. 445-451, 508-521.

E. W. Nelson, “The Eskimo about Bering Strait,” Eighteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Part I. (Washington, 1899), pp. 320, 433 sq.

Revelation xx. 1-3.

Revelation xiii. 18.

Ivan Stchoukine, Le Suicide collectif dans le Raskol russe (Paris, 1903), pp. 45-53, 61-78, 84-87, 96-99, 102-112. The mania in its most extreme form died away towards the end of the seventeenth century, but during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries cases of collective suicide from religious motives occurred from time to time, people burning themselves in families or in batches of thirty or forty. The last of these suicides by fire took place in 1860, when fifteen persons thus perished in the Government of Olonetz. Twenty-four others buried themselves alive near Tiraspol in the winter of 1896-97. See I. Stchoukine, op. cit. pp. 114-126.

Voltaire, Essai sur les Mœurs, iii. 142-145 (Œuvres complètes de Voltaire, xiii. Paris, 1878).

Duarte Barbosa, A Description of the Coasts of East Africa and Malabar in the Beginning of the Sixteenth Century (Hakluyt Society, London, 1866), pp. 172 sq.

L. di Varthema, Travels, translated by J. W. Jones and edited by G. P. Badger (Hakluyt Society, London, 1863), p. 134. In a note the Editor says that the name Zamorin (Samorin) according to some “is a corruption of Tamuri, the name of the most exalted family of the Nair caste.”

Francis Buchanan, “Journey from Madras through the Countries of Mysore, Canara, and Malabar,” in Pinkerton's Voyages and Travels, viii. 735.

Alex. Hamilton, “A New Account of the East Indies,” in Pinkerton's Voyages and Travels, viii. 374.

The sidereal revolution of Jupiter is completed in 11 years 314.92 days (Encyclopaedia Britannica, Ninth Edition, s.v. “Astronomy,” ii. 808). The twelve-years revolution of Jupiter was known to the Greek astronomers, from whom the knowledge may perhaps have penetrated into India. See Geminus, Eisagoge, I, p. 10, ed. Halma.

W. Logan, Malabar (Madras, 1887), i. 162-169. The writer describes in particular the festival of 1683, when fifty-five men perished in the manner described.

Sir H. M. Elliot, The History of India as told by its own Historians, iv. 260. I have to thank Mr. R. S. Whiteway, of Brownscombe, Shottermill, Surrey, for kindly calling my attention to this and the following instance of the custom of regicide.

De Barros, Da Asia, dos feitos, que os Portuguezes fizeram no descubrimento e conquista dos mares e terras do Oriente, Decada Terceira, Liv. V. cap. i. pp. 512 sq. (Lisbon, 1777).

Saxo Grammaticus,Historia Danica, viii. pp. 410 sq., ed. P. E. Müller (p. 334 of Mr. Oliver Elton's English translation).

T. K. Gopal Panikkar (of the Madras Registration Department), Malabar and its Folk (Madras, N. D., preface dated Chowghaut, 8th October 1900), pp. 120 sq. I have to thank my friend Mr. W. Crooke for calling my attention to this account.

Voyage d'Ibn Batoutah, texte arabe, accompagné d'une traduction par C. Deffrémery et B. R. Sanguinetti (Paris, 1853-58), iv. 246 sq.

The Wonders of the East, by Friar Jordanus, translated by Col. Henry Yule (London, 1863, Hakluyt Society), pp. 32 sq.

India in the Fifteenth Century, being a Collection of Voyages to India in the century preceding the Portuguese discovery of the Cape of Good Hope, edited by R. H. Major (Hakluyt Society, London, 1857), “The Travels of Nicolo Conti in the East,” pp. 27 sq. An instrument of the sort described in the text (a crescent-shaped knife with chains and stirrups attached to it for the convenience of the suicide) used to be preserved at Kshira, a village of Bengal near Nadiya: it was called a karavat. See The Book of Ser Marco Polo, newly translated and edited by Colonel Henry Yule, Second Edition (London, 1875), ii. 334.

Major P. R. T. Gurdon, The Khasis (London, 1907), pp. 102 sq., quoting Mr. Gait in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal for 1898.

E. T. Dalton, Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal (Calcutta, 1872), p. 146.

F. T. Valdez, Six Years of a Traveller's Life in Western Africa (London, 1861), ii. 158-160. I have translated the title Maquita by “chief”; the writer does not explain it.

Ynglinga Saga, 29 (The Heimskringla, translated by S. Laing, i. 239 sq.). Compare H. M. Chadwick, The Cult of Othin (London, 1899), p. 4. According to Messrs. Laing and Chadwick the sacrifice took place every tenth year. But I follow Prof. K. Weinhold who translates “hit tiunda hvert ár” by “alle neun Jahre” (“Die mystische Neunzahl bei den Deutschen,” Abhandlungen der könig. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1897, p. 6). So in Latin decimo quoque anno should be translated “every ninth year.”

Saxo Grammaticus, Historia Danica, iii. pp. 129-131, ed. P. E. Müller (pp. 98 sq. of Oliver Elton's English translation).

Adam of Bremen, Descriptio insularum Aquilonis, 27 (Migne's Patrologia Latina, cxlvi. col. 644). See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, vol. ii. pp. 364 sq.

Plutarch, Agis, II. Plutarch says that the custom was observed “at intervals of nine years” (δι᾽ ἐτῶν ἐννέα), but the expression is equivalent to our “at intervals of eight years.” In reckoning intervals of time numerically the Greeks included both the terms which are separated by the interval, whereas we include only one of them. For example, our phrase “every second day” would be rendered in Greek διὰ τρίτης ἡμέρας, literally “every third day.” Again, a cycle of two years is in Greek trieteris, literally “a period of three years”; a cycle of eight years is ennaeteris, literally “a period of nine years”; and so forth. See Censorinus, De die natali, 18. The Latin use of the ordinal numbers is similar, e.g. our “every second year” would be tertio quoque anno in Latin. However, the Greeks and Romans were not always consistent in this matter, for they occasionally reckoned in our fashion. The resulting ambiguity is not only puzzling to moderns; it sometimes confused the ancients themselves. For example, it led to a derangement of the newly instituted Julian calendar, which escaped detection for more than thirty years. See Macrobius, Saturn. i. 14. 13 sq.; Solinus, i. 45-47. On the ancient modes of counting in such cases see A. Schmidt, Handbuch der griechischen Chronologie (Jena, 1888), pp. 95 sqq. According to Schmidt, the practice of adding both terms to the sum of the intervening units was not extended by the Greeks to numbers above nine.

Die Dorier,2 ii. 96.

E. Man, Aboriginal Inhabitants of the Andaman Islands, pp. 84 sq.

W. E. Roth, North Queensland Bulletin, No. 5, Superstition, Magic, and Medicine (Brisbane, 1903), p. 8.

A. W. Howitt, The Native Tribes of South-East Australia, p. 429.

A. W. Howitt, op. cit. p. 430. One of the earliest writers on New South Wales reports that the natives attributed great importance to the falling of a star (D. Collins,Account of the English Colony in New South Wales (London, 1804), p. 383).

Spencer and Gillen, Northern Tribes of Central Australia, p. 627.

Spencer and Gillen, op. cit. pp. 488, 627 sq.

G. Thilenius, Ethnographische Ergebnisse aus Melanesien, ii. (Halle, 1903) p. 129.

H. A. Junod, Les Ba-ronga (Neuchatel, 1898), p. 470.

A. C. Hollis, The Masai (Oxford, 1905), p. 316.

J. Campbell, Travels in South Africa (London, 1815), pp. 428 sq.

Id., Travels in South Africa, Second Journey (London, 1822), ii. 204.

G. Zündel, “Land und Volk der Eweer auf der Sclavenküste in Westafrika,” Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin, xii. (1877) pp. 415 sq.; C. Spiess, “Religionsbegriffe der Evheer in Westafrika,” Mittheilungen des Seminars für Orientalische Sprachen zu Berlin, vi. (1903) Dritte Abtheilung, p. 112.

Boscana, “Chinigchinich, a Historical Account of the Origin, etc., of the Indians of St. Juan Capistrano,” in A. Robinson's Life in California (New York, 1846), p. 299.

C. Lumholtz, Unknown Mexico (London, 1903), i. 324 sq.

K. von den Steinen, Unter den Naturvölkern Zentral-Brasiliens (Berlin, 1894), pp. 514 sq. The Peruvian Indians also made a prodigious noise when they saw a shooting star. See P. de Cieza de Leon, Travels (Hakluyt Society, London, 1864), p. 232.

G. Kurze, “Sitten und Gebräuche der Lengua-Indianer,” Mitteilungen der Geographischen Gesellschaft zu Jena, xxiii. (1905) p. 17; W. Barbrooke Grubb, An Unknown People in an Unknown Land (London, 1911), p. 163.

M. Dobrizhoffer, Historia de Abiponibus (Vienna, 1784), ii. 86.

W. Tetzlaff, “Notes on the Laughlan Islands,” Annual Report on British New Guinea, 1890-91 (Brisbane, 1892), p. 105.

H. Oldenberg, Die Religion des Veda, p. 267.

W. Crooke, Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India (Westminster, 1906), ii. 22.

Holzmayer, “Osiliana,” Verhandlungen der gelehrten Estnischen Gesellschaft zu Dorpat, vii. (1872) p. 48.

Guillain, Documents sur l'histoire, la géographie, et le commerce de l'Afrique Orientale, ii. (Paris, N.D.) p. 97; C. Velten, Sitten und Gebräuche der Suaheli (Göttingen, 1903), pp. 339 sq.; C. B. Klunzinger, Upper Egypt (London, 1878), p. 405; Budgett Meakin, The Moors (London, 1902), p. 353.

E. Dieffenbach, Travels in New Zealand (London, 1843), ii. 66. According to another account, meteors are regarded by the Maoris as betokening the presence of a god (R. Taylor, Te Ika a Maui, or New Zealand and its Inhabitants,2 p. 147).

Ch. Wilkes, Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition, v. 88.

A. W. Howitt, Native Tribes of South-East Australia, p. 369.

A. W. Howitt, in Brough Smyth's Aborigines of Victoria, ii. 309.

E. Palmer, “Notes on some Australian Tribes,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xiii. (1884) p. 292. Sometimes apparently the Australian natives regard crystals or broken glass as fallen stars, and treasure them as powerful instruments of magic. See E. M. Curr, The Australian Race, iii. 29; W. E. Roth, North Queensland Ethnography, Bulletin No. 5, p. 8.

J. Macgillivray, Narrative of the Voyage of H.M.S. Rattlesnake (London, 1852), ii. 30.

P. A. Kleintitschen, Die Küstenbewohner der Gazellehalbinsel (Hiltrup bei Münster, n.d.), p. 227.

P. Rascher, “Die Sulka,” Archiv für Anthropologie, xxix. (1904) p. 216.

Dudley Kidd, Savage Childhood (London, 1906), p. 149.

J. Halkin, Quelques Peuplades du district de l'Uelé (Liège, 1907), p. 102.

O. Baumann, Durch Massailand zur Nilquelle (Berlin, 1894), p. 163.

O. Baumann, Durch Massailand zur Nilquelle (Berlin, 1894), p. 188.

E. Petitot, Monographie des Dènè-Dindjé (Paris, 1876), p. 60; id., Monographie des Esquimaux Tchiglit (Paris, 1876), p. 24.

A. Henry, “The Lolos and other Tribes of Western China,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxiii. (1903) p. 103.

Pliny, Nat. Hist. ii. 28.

F. Panzer, Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie, ii. 293; A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche, p. 457, § 422; E. Meier, Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben, p. 506, §§ 379, 380.

P. Sébillot, Traditions et superstitions de la Haute-Bretagne, ii. 353; J. Haltrich, Zur Volkskunde der Siebenbürger Sachsen (Vienna, 1885), p. 300; W. Schmidt, Das Jahr und seine Tage in Meinung und Brauch der Romänen Siebenbürgens, p. 38; E. Gerard, The Land beyond the Forest, i. 311; J. V. Grohmann, Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren, p. 31, § 164; Br. Jelínek, “Materialien zur Vorgeschichte und Volkskunde Böhmens,” Mittheilungen der anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien, xxi. (1891) p. 25; G. Finamore, Credenze, usi e costumi Abruzzesi, pp. 47 sq.; M. Placucci, Usi e pregiudizj dei contadini della Romagna (Palermo, 1885), p. 141; Holzmayer, “Osiliana,” Verhandl. der gelehrten Estnischen Gesellschaft zu Dorpat, vii. (1872) p. 48. The same belief is said to prevail in Armenia. See Minas Tchéraz, “Notes sur la mythologie arménienne,” Transactions of the Ninth International Congress of Orientalists (London, 1893), ii. 824. Bret Harte has employed the idea in his little poem, “Relieving Guard.”

H. Lew, “Der Tod und die Beerdigungs-gebräuche bei den polnischen Juden,” Mittheilungen der anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien, xxxii. (1902) p. 402.

A. Schlossar, “Volksmeinung und Volksaberglaube aus der deutschen Steiermark,” Germania, N.R., xxiv. (1891) p. 389.

Boecler-Kreutzwald, Der Ehsten abergläubische Gebräuche, Weisen und Gewohnheiten (St. Petersburg, 1854), p. 73.

E. Monseur, Le Folklore wallon, p. 61; A. de Nore, Coutumes, mythes et traditions des provinces de France, pp. 101, 160, 223, 267, 284; B. Souché, Croyances, présages et traditions diverses, p. 23; P. Sébillot, Traditions et superstitions de la Haute-Bretagne, ii. 352; J. Lecœur, Esquisses du bocage normand, ii. 13; L. Pineau, Folk-lore du Poitou (Paris, 1892), pp. 525 sq.

L. F. Sauvé. Le Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges (Paris, 1889), pp. 196 sq.

F. Chapiseau, Le Folk-lore de la Beauce et du Perche (Paris, 1902), i. 290; G. Finamore, Credenze, usi e costumi Abruzzesi (Palermo, 1890), p. 48.

North Indian Notes and Queries, i. p. 102, § 673. Compare id. p. 47, § 356; Indian Notes and Queries, iv. p. 184, § 674; W. Crooke, Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India (Westminster, 1896), i. 82.

W. Ellis, Polynesian Researches,2 iii. 171.

Maximilian Prinz zu Wied, Reise in das Innere Nord-America (Coblenz, 1839-1841), ii. 152. It does not, however, appear from the writer's statement whether the descent of the soul was identified with the flight of a meteor or not.

D. C. J. Ibbetson, Outlines of Panjab Ethnography (Calcutta, 1883), p. 118, § 231.

L. Ideler, Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie, ii. 605 sqq. Ninety-nine lunar months nearly coincide with eight solar years, as the ancients well knew (Sozomenus, Historia ecclesiastica, vii. 18). On the religious and political import of the eight years' cycle in ancient Greece see especially K. O. Müller, Orchomenus und die Minyer,2 pp. 213-218; id., Die Dorier,2 i. 254 sq., 333 sq., 440, ii. 96, 483; id., Prolegomena zu einer wissenschaftlichen Mythologie (Göttingen, 1825), pp. 422-424.

“Ancient opinion even assigned the regulation of the calendar by the solstices and equinoxes to the will of the gods that sacrifices should be rendered at similar times in each year, rather than to the strict requirements of agriculture; and as religion undoubtedly makes larger demands on the cultivator as agriculture advances, the obligations of sacrifice may probably be reckoned as of equal importance with agricultural necessities in urging the formation of reckonings in the nature of a calendar” (E. J. Payne, History of the New World called America, ii. 280).

As to the eight years' servitude of Apollo and Cadmus for the slaughter of dragons, see below, p. 78. For the nine years' penance of the man who had tasted human flesh at the festival of Zeus on Mount Lycaeus, see Pliny, Nat. hist. viii. 81 sq.; Augustine, De civitate Dei, xviii. 17; Pausanias, viii. 2. 6; compare Plato, Republic, viii. p. 565 D E. Any god who forswore himself by the water of Styx was exiled for nine years from the society of his fellow-gods (Hesiod, Theogony, 793-804). On this subject see further, E. Rohde, Psyche,3 ii. 211 sq.; W. H. Roscher, “Die enneadischen und hebdomadischen Fristen und Wochen der ältesten Griechen,” Abhandlungen der philolog.-histor. Klasse der Königl. Sächsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, xxi. No. 4 (1903), pp. 24 sqq.

Plato, Meno, p. 81 a-c; Pindar, ed. Boeckh, vol. iii. pp. 623 sq., Frag. 98.

Homer, Odyssey, xix. 178 sq.,

τῇσι δ᾽ ἐνὶ Κνωσός, μεγάλη πόλις, ἔνθα τε Μίνως
ἐννέωρος βασίλευε Διὸς μεγάλου ὀαριστής.

with the Scholia; Plato, Laws, i. I. p. 624 a, b;[id.] Minos, 13 sq., pp. 319 sq.; Strabo, ix. 4. 8, p. 476; Maximus Tyrius, Dissert. xxxviii. 2; Etymologicum magnum, s.v. ἐννέωροι, p. 343, 23 sqq.; Valerius Maximus, i. 2, ext. I; compare Diodorus Siculus, v. 78. 3. Homer's expression, ἐννέωρος βασίλευε, has been variously explained. I follow the interpretation which appears to have generally found favour both with the ancients, including Plato, and with modern scholars. See K. Hoeck, Kreta, i. 244 sqq.; K. O. Müller,Die Dorier,2 ii. 96; G. F. Unger, “Zeitrechnung der Griechen und Römer,” in Ivan Müller's Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft, i. 569; A. Schmidt, Handbuch der griechischen Chronologie (Jena, 1888), p. 65; W. H. Roscher, “Die enneadischen und hebdomadischen Fristen und Wochen der ältesten Griechen,” Abhandlungen der philolog.-histor. Klasse der Königl. Sächsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, xxi. No. 4 (Leipsic, 1903), pp. 22 sq.; E. Rohde, Psyche,3 i. 128 sq. Literally interpreted, ἐννέωρος means “for nine years,” not “for eight years.” But see above, p. 59, note 1.

Apollodorus, iii. 1. 3 sq., iii. 15. 8; Diodorus Siculus, iv. 77; Schol. on Euripides, Hippolytus, 887; J. Tzetzes, Chiliades, i. 479 sqq.; Hyginus, Fabulae, 40; Virgil, Ecl. vi. 45 sqq.; Ovid, Ars amat. i. 289 sqq.

K. Hoeck, Kreta, ii. (Göttingen, 1828) pp. 63-69; L. Preller, Griechische Mythologie,3 ii. 119-123; W. H. Roscher, Über Selene mid Verwandtes (Leipsic, 1890), pp. 135-139; id., Nachträge zu meiner Schrift über Selene (Leipsic, 1895), p. 3; Türk, in W. H. Roscher's Lexikon der griech. und röm. Mythologie, iii. 1666 sq.; A. J. Evans, “Mycenaean Tree and Pillar Cult,” Journal of Hellenic Studies, xxi. (1901) p. 181; A. B. Cook, “Zeus, Jupiter, and the Oak,” Classical Review, xvii. (1903) pp. 406-412; compare id., “The European Sky-god,” Folklore, xv. (1904) p. 272. All these writers, except Mr. Cook, regard Minos and Pasiphae as representing the sun and moon. Mr. Cook agrees so far as relates to Minos, but he supposes Pasiphae to be a sky-goddess or sun-goddess rather than a goddess of the moon. On the other hand, he was the first to suggest that the myth was periodically acted by the king and queen of Cnossus disguised in bovine form.

Compare The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 368 sq.

Bekker's Anecdota Graeca, i. 344, s.v. Ἀδιούνιος ταῦρος.

Eusebius, Praeparatio Evangelii, iii. 13. 1 sq.; Diodorus Siculus, i. 84. 4, i. 88. 4; Strabo, xvii. 1. 22 and 27, pp. 803, 805; Aelian, De natura animalium, xi. II; Suidas, s.v. Ἆπις; Ammianus Marcellinus, xxii. 14. 7; A. Wiedemann, Herodots Zweites Buch, p. 552; A. Erman, Die ägyptische Religion (Berlin, 1905), p. 26; E. A. Wallis Budge, The Gods of the Egyptians (London, 1904), i. 330.

E. A. Wallis Budge, The Gods of the Egyptians, i. 25.

Pausanias, i. 26. 1. For a description of the scenery of this coast, see Morritt, in Walpole's Memoirs relating to European Turkey, i.2 p. 54.

W. H. Roscher, Über Selene und Verwandtes, pp. 30-33.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 130 sqq. We are told that Egyptian sovereigns assumed the masks of lions, bulls, and serpents as symbols of power (Diodorus Siculus, i. 62. 4).

As to Minos and Britomartis or Dictynna, see Callimachus, Hymn to Diana, 189 sqq.; Pausanias, ii. 30. 3; Antoninus Liberalis, Transform. 40; Diodorus Siculus, v. 76. On Britomartis as a moon-goddess, see K. Hoeck, Kreta, ii. 170; W. H. Roscher, Über Selene und Verwandtes, pp. 45 sq., 116-118. Hoeck acutely perceived that the pursuit of Britomartis by Minos “is a trait of old festival customs in which the conceptions of the sun-god were transferred to the king of the island.” As to the explanation here adopted of the myth of Zeus and Europa, see K. Hoeck, Kreta, i. 90 sqq.; W. H. Roscher, op. cit. pp. 128-135. Moschus describes (ii. 84 sqq.) the bull which carried off Europa as yellow in colour with a silver circle shining on his forehead, and he compares the bull's horns to those of the moon.

See W. H. Roscher, op. cit. pp. 76-82. Amongst the passages of classical writers which he cites are Plutarch, De facie in orbe lunae, 30; id., Isis et Osiris, 52; Cornutus, Theologiae Graecae compendium, 34, p. 72, ed. C. Lang; Proclus, on Hesiod, Works and Days, 780; Macrobius, Commentar. in Somnium Scipionis, i. 18. 10 sq.; Pliny, Nat. hist. ii. 45. When the sun and moon were eclipsed, the Tahitians supposed that the luminaries were in the act of copulation (J. Wilson, Missionary Voyage to the Southern Pacific Ocean (London, 1799), p. 346).

Plutarch, Theseus, 15 sq.; Diodorus Siculus, iv. 61; Pausanias, i. 27. 10; Ovid, Metam. viii. 170 sq. According to another account, the tribute of youths and maidens was paid every year. See Virgil, Aen. vi. 14 sqq., with the commentary of Servius; Hyginus, Fabulae, 41.

Apollodorus, i. 9. 26; Apollonius Rhodius, Argon. iv. 1638 sqq., with the scholium; Agatharchides, in Photius, Bibliotheca, p. 443b, lines 22-25, ed. Bekker; Lucian, De saltatione, 49; Zenobius, v. 85; Suidas, s.v. Σαρδάνιος γέλως; Eustathius on Homer, Odyssey, xx. 302, p. 1893; Schol. on Plato, Republic, i. p. 337A.

Apollodorus, i. 9. 26.

Hesychius, s.v. Ταλῶς.

Diodorus Siculus, xx. 14; Clitarchus, cited by Suidas, s.v. Σαρδάνιος γέλως, and by the Scholiast on Plato, Republic, p. 337A; Plutarch, De superstitione, 13; Paulus Fagius, quoted by Selden, De dis Syris (Leipsic, 1668), pp. 169 sq. The calf's head of the idol is mentioned only by P. Fagius, who drew his account from a book Jalkut by Rabbi Simeon.

Compare M. Mayer, s.v. “Kronos,” in W. H. Roscher's Lexikon d. griech. u. röm. Mythologie, iii. 1501 sqq.

J. Tzetzes, Chiliades, i. 646 sqq.

Homer, Iliad, xviii. 590 sqq.

Plutarch, Theseus, 21; Julius Pollux, iv. 101.

As to the Game of Troy, see Virgil, Aen. v. 545-603; Plutarch, Cato, 3; Tacitus, Annals, xi. 11; Suetonius, Augustus, 43; id., Tiberius, 6; id., Caligula, 18; id., Nero, 6; W. Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities,3 s.v. “Trojae ludus”; O. Benndorf, “Das Alter des Trojaspieles,” appended to W. Reichel's Über homerische Waffen (Vienna, 1894), pp. 133-139.

O. Benndorf, op. cit. pp. 133 sq.

B. V. Head, Historia numorum (Oxford, 1887), pp. 389-391.

O. Benndorf, op. cit. pp. 134 sq.

Pliny, Nat. hist. xxxvi. 85.

O. Benndorf, op. cit. p. 135; W. Meyer, “Ein Labyrinth mit Versen,” Sitzungsberichte der philosoph. philolog. und histor. Classe der k. b. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu München, 1882, vol. ii. pp. 267-300.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, i. 312.

B. V. Head, Historia numorum, p. 389.

Censorinus, De die natali, 18. 6.

The suggestion was made by Mr. A. B. Cook. The following discussion of the subject is founded on his ingenious exposition. See his article, “The European Sky-god,” Folklore, xv. (1904) pp. 402-424.

As to the Delphic festival see Plutarch, Quaest. Graec. 12; id., De defectu oraculorum, 15; Strabo, ix. 3. 12, pp. 422 sq.; Aelian, Var. hist. iii. 1; Stephanus Byzantius, s.v. Δειπνίας; K. O. Müller, Die Dorier,2 i. 203 sqq., 321-324; Aug. Mommsen, Delphika (Leipsic, 1878), pp. 206 sqq.; Th. Schreiber, Apollo Pythoktonos, pp. 9 sqq.; my note on Pausanias, ii. 7. 7 (vol. ii. 53 sqq.). As to the Theban festival, see Pausanias, ix. 10. 4, with my note; Proclus, quoted by Photius, Bibliotheca, p. 321, ed. Bekker; Aug. Boeckh, in his edition of Pindar, Explicationes, p. 590; K. O. Müller, Orchomenus und die Minyer,2 pp. 215 sq.; id., Dorier,2 i. 236 sq., 333 sq.; C. Boetticher, Der Baumkultus der Hellenen, pp. 386 sqq.; G. F. Schömann, Griechische Alterthümer,4 ii. 479 sq.

Apollodorus, iii. 4. 2, iii. 10. 4; Servius, on Virgil, Aen. vii. 761. The servitude of Apollo is traditionally associated with his slaughter of the Cyclopes, not of the dragon. But see my note on Pausanias, ii. 7. 7 (vol. ii. pp. 53 sqq.).

W. H. Roscher's Lexikon d. griech. und röm. Mythologie, ii. 830, 838, 839. On an Etruscan mirror the scene of Cadmus's combat with the dragon is surrounded by a wreath of laurel (Roscher, op. cit. ii. 862). Mr. A. B. Cook was the first to call attention to these vase-paintings in confirmation of my view that the Festival of the Laurel-bearing celebrated the destruction of the dragon by Cadmus (Folklore, xv. (1904) p. 411, note 224).

Pausanias, ix. 10. 2; K. O. Müller, Die Dorier,2 i. 237 sq.

For evidence of the wide diffusion of the myth and the drama, see Th. Schreiber, Apollon Pythoktonos, pp. 39-50. The Laurel-bearing Apollo was worshipped at Athens, as we know from an inscription carved on one of the seats in the theatre. See E. S. Roberts and E. A. Gardner, Introduction to Greek Epigraphy, ii. (Cambridge, 1905) p. 467, No. 247.

Apollodorus, iii. 4. 3; Schol. on Homer, Iliad, ii. 494; Pausanias, ix. 10. 5; Homeric Hymn to Apollo, 300 sq. The writer of the Homeric hymn merely says that Apollo slew the Delphic dragon at a spring; but Pausanias (x. 6. 6) tells us that the beast guarded the oracle.

Pausanias, x. 8. 9, x. 24. 7, with my notes; Ovid, Amores, i. 15. 35 sq.; Lucian, Jupiter tragoedus, 30; Nonnus, Dionys. iv. 309 sq.; Suidas, s.v. Κασταλία.

W. H. Roscher, Lexikon d. griech. u. röm. Mythologie, ii. 830, 838.

Euripides, Iphigenia in Tauris, 1245 sq., where the reading κατάχαλκος is clearly corrupt.

Lucian, Bis accusatus, I. So the priest of the Clarian Apollo at Colophon drank of a secret spring before he uttered oracles in verse (Tacitus, Annals, ii. 54; Pliny, Nat. hist. ii. 232).

Euripides, Iphigenia in Tauris, 1245 sqq.; Apollodorus, i. 4. I; Pausanias, x. 6. 6; Aelian, Var. hist. iii. i; Hyginus, Fabulae, 140; Schol. on Homer, Iliad, ii. 519; Schol. on Pindar, Pyth. Argument, p. 298, ed. Boeckh.

Euripides, Hercules Furens, 395 sqq.; Apollodorus, ii. 5. II; Diodorus Siculus, iv. 26; Eratosthenes, Catasterism. 3; Schol. on Euripides, Hippolytus, 742; Schol. on Apollonius Rhodius, Argon, iv. 1396.

A. B. Cook, “The European Sky-god,” Folklore, xv. (1904) p. 413.

Ovid, Metam. i. 448 sqq.

Clement of Alexandria, Protrept. i. I, p. 2, and ii. 34, p. 29, ed. Potter; Aristotle, Peplos, Frag. (Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum, ii. p. 189, No. 282, ed. C. Müller); John of Antioch, Frag. i. 20 (Frag. histor. Graec. iv. p. 539, ed. C. Müller); Jamblichus, De Pythagor. vit. x. 52; Schol. on Pindar, Pyth. Argum. p. 298, ed. Boeckh; Ovid, Metam. i. 445 sqq.; Hyginus, Fabulae, 140.

Schol. on Pindar, l.c.; Censorinus, De die natali, 18. 6; compare Eustathius on Homer, Od. iii. 267, p. 1466. 29.

Plutarch, De defectu oraculorum, 3, compared with id. 15; Aug. Mommsen, Delphika, pp. 211, 214; Th. Schreiber, Apollon Pythoktonos (Leipsic, 1879), pp. 32 sqq.

Aelian, Var. hist. iii. I; Schol. on Pindar, l.c.

On the original identity of the festivals see Th. Schreiber, Apollon Pythoktonus, pp. 37 sq.; A. B. Cook, in Folklore, xv. (1904) pp. 404 sq.

The inference was drawn by Mr. A. B. Cook, whom I follow. See his article, “The European Sky-god,” Folk-lore, xv. (1904) pp. 412 sqq.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, vol. i. p. 8.

Aelian, Var. hist. iii. 1; Schol. on Pindar, Pyth. Argum. p. 298, ed. Boeckh.

A. B. Cook, “The European Sky-god,” Folk-lore, xv. (1904) pp. 423 sq.

Pausanias, ix. 3. 4. See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, vol. ii. p. 140.

A. B. Cook, “The European Sky-god,” Folk-lore, xv. (1904) pp. 402 sqq.

Plato, Republic, viii. p. 565 d e; Polybius, vii. 13; Pliny, Nat. hist. viii. 81; Varro, cited by Augustine, De civitate Dei, xviii. 17; Pausanias, vi. 8. 2, viii. 2. 3-6.

Mary H. Kingsley, Travels in West Africa, pp. 536-543; T. J. Alldridge, The Sherbro and its Hinterland (London, 1901), pp. 153-159; compare R. H. Nassau, Fetichism in West Africa (London, 1904), pp. 200-203.

T. J. Alldridge, op. cit. p. 154.

A. Bastian, Die deutsche Expedition an der Loango-Küste, ii. 248.

Apollodorus, iii. 5. 4; Strabo, vii. 7. 8, p. 326; Ovid, Metam. iv. 563-603; Hyginus, Fabulae, 6; Nicander, Theriaca, 607 sqq.

A. van Gennep, Tabou et totémisme à Madagascar (Paris, 1904), p. 326.

Dercylus, quoted by a scholiast on Euripides, Phoenissae, 7; Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum, ed. C. Müller, iv. 387. The writer rationalises the legend by representing the dragon as a Theban man of that name whom Cadmus slew. On the theory here suggested this Euhemeristic version of the story is substantially right.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 268 sqq.

David Leslie, Among the Zulus and Amatongas, Second Edition (Edinburgh, 1875), p. 213. Compare H. Callaway, The Religious System of the Amazulu, Part II., pp. 196, 211.

See Adonis, Attis, Osiris, Second Edition, pp. 73 sqq.

D. Livingstone, Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa, p. 615; Miss A. Werner, The Natives of British Central Africa (London, 1906), p. 64; L. Decle, Three Years in Savage Africa (London, 1898), p. 74; J. Roscoe, “The Bahima,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxvii. (1907) pp. 101 sq.; Major J. A. Meldon, “Notes on the Bahima,” Journal of the African Society, No. 22 (January, 1907), pp. 151-153; J. A. Chisholm, “Notes on the Manners and Customs of the Winamwanga and Wiwa,” Journal of the African Society, No. 36 (July, 1910), pp. 374, 375; P. Alois Hamberger, in Anthropos, v. (1910) p. 802.

W. W. Skeat and C. O. Blagden, Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula (London, 1906), ii. 194, 197, 221, 227, 305.

A. B. Ellis, The Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast, pp. 74 sq.

This I learned from Professor F. von Luschan in the Anthropological Museum at Berlin.

M. Delafosse, in La Nature, No. 1086 (March 24th, 1894), pp. 262-266; J. G. Frazer, “Statues of Three Kings of Dahomey,” Man, viii. (1908) pp. 130-132. King Behanzin, surnamed the Shark, is doubtless the King of Dahomey referred to by Professor von Luschan (see the preceding note).

The statue was pointed out to me and explained by Professor F. von Luschan.

A. B. Ellis, The Tshi-speaking Peoples of the Gold Coast, pp. 205 sq.

2 Kings xviii. 4.

W. Robertson Smith, “Animal Worship and Animal Tribes,” Journal of Philology, ix. (1880) pp. 99 sq. Professor T. K. Cheyne prefers to suppose that the brazen serpent and the brazen “sea” in the temple at Jerusalem were borrowed from Babylon and represented the great dragon, the impersonation of the primaeval watery chaos. See Encyclopaedia Biblica, s.v. “Nehushtan,” vol. i. coll. 3387. The two views are perhaps not wholly irreconcilable. See below, pp. 111 sq.

Herodotus, viii. 41; Plutarch, Themistocles, 10; Aristophanes, Lysistrata, 758 sq., with the Scholium; Philostratus, Imagines, ii. 17. 6. Some said that there were two serpents ,Hesychius and Photius, Lexicon, s.v. οἰκουρὸν ὄφιν. For the identity of the serpent with Erichthonius, see Pausanias, i. 24. 7; Hyginus, Astronomica, ii. 13; Tertullian, De spectaculis, 9; compare Philostratus, Vit. Apoll. vii. 24; and for the identity of Erichthonius and Erechtheus, see Schol. on Homer, Iliad, ii. 547; Etymologicum magnum, p. 371, s.v. Ἐρεχθεύς. According to some, the upper part of Erichthonius was human and the lower part or only the feet serpentine. See Hyginus, Fabulae, 166; id., Astronomica, ii. 13; Schol. on Plato, Timaeus, p. 23 d; Etymologicum magnum, l.c.; Servius on Virgil, Georg. iii. 13. See further my notes on Pausanias i. 18. 2 and i. 26. 5, vol. ii. pp. 168 sqq., 330 sqq.

Apollodorus, iii. 14. i; Aristophanes, Wasps, 438. Compare J. Tzetzes, Chiliades, v. 641.

W. H. Roscher, Lexikon d. griech. und röm. Mythologie, ii. 1019. Compare Euripides, Ion, 1163 sqq.

O. Immisch, in W. H. Roscher's Lexikon d. griech. und röm. Mythologie, ii. 1023.

Apollodorus, iii. 12. 7; Diodorus Siculus, iv. 72; J. Tzetzes, Schol. on Lycophron, 110, 175, 451.

Pausanias, i. 36. 1. Another version of the story was that Cychreus bred a snake which ravaged the island and was driven out by Eurylochus, after which Demeter received the creature at Eleusis as one of her attendants (Hesiod, quoted by Strabo, ix. 1. 9, p. 393).

Stephanus Byzantius, s.v. Κυχρεῖος πάγος; Eustathius, Commentary on Dionysius, 507, in Geographi Graeci minores, ed. C. Müller, ii. 314.

Hesychius, s.v. Ἐρεχθεύς; Athenagoras, Supplicatio pro Christianis, 1; [Plutarch], Vit. X. Orat. p. 843 b c; Corpus inscriptionum Atticarum, i. No. 387, iii. Nos. 276, 805; compare Pausanias, i. 26. 5.

Apollodorus, iii. 14. 1; Herodotus, viii. 55; compare Pausanias, viii. 10. 4.

See above, p. 73.

Apollodorus, iii. 4. 1 sq.; Pausanias, ix. 12. 1 sq.; Schol. on Homer, Iliad, ii. 494; Hyginus, Fabulae, 178. The mark of the moon on the cow is mentioned only by Pausanias and Hyginus.

Apollodorus, iii. 4. 2; Euripides, Phoenissae, 822 sq.; Pindar, Pyth. iii. 155 sqq.; Diodorus Siculus, v. 49. 1; Pausanias, iii. 18. 12, ix. 12. 3; Schol. on Homer, Iliad, ii. 494.

Proclus, quoted by Photius, Bibliotheca, p. 321, ed. Bekker.

Proclus, l.c.

Pindar, Pyth. iii. 155 sqq.; Diodorus Siculus, v. 49. 1; Pausanias, ix. 12. 3; Schol. on Homer, Iliad, ii. 494.

Schol. on Euripides, Phoenissae, 7 καὶ νῦν ἔτι ἐν τῇ Σαμοθρᾴκῃ ζητοῦσιν αὐτὴν [scil. Ἁρμονίαν] ἐν ταῖς ἑορταῖς. According to the Samothracian account, Cadmus in seeking Europa came to Samothrace, and there, having been initiated into the mysteries, married Harmonia (Diodorus Siculus, v. 48 sq.). It is probable, though it cannot be proved, that the legend was acted in the mystic rites.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 133. Mr. A. B. Cook has suggested that the central scene on the eastern frieze of the Parthenon represents the king and queen of Athens about to take their places among the enthroned deities. See his article “Zeus, Jupiter, and the Oak,” Classical Review, xviii. (1904) p. 371. As the scenes on the frieze appear to have been copied from the Panathenaiac festival, it would seem, on Mr. Cook's hypothesis, that the sacred marriage of the King and Queen was celebrated on that occasion in presence of actors who played the parts of gods and goddesses. In this connexion it may not be amiss to remember that in the eastern gable of the Parthenon the pursuit of the moon by the sun was mythically represented by the horses of the sun emerging from the sea on the one side, and the horses of the moon plunging into it on the other.

Schol. on Pindar, Olymp. iii. 35 (20).

Compare Aug. Boeckh, on Pindar, l.c., Explicationes, p. 138; L. Ideler, Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie, i. 366 sq.; G. F. Unger, “Zeitrechnung der Griechen und Römer,” in Iwan Müller's Handbuch der classischen Altertumswissenschaft, i. 605 sq. All these writers recognise the octennial cycle at Olympia.

K. O. Müller, Die Dorier,2 ii. 483; compare id. i. 254 sq.

Pausanias, v. 1. 4.

Aug. Boeckh, l.c.; A. Schmidt, Handbuch der griechischen Chronologie (Jena, 1888), pp. 50 sqq.; K. O. Müller, Die Dorier,2 i. 438; W. H. Roscher, Selene und Verwandtes, pp. 2 sq., 80 sq., 101.

See Aug. Boeckh and L. Ideler, ll.cc. More recent writers would date it on the second full moon after the summer solstice, hence in August or the last days of July. See G. F. Unger, l.c.; E. F. Bischoff, “De fastis Graecorum antiquioribus,” Leipziger Studien zur classischen Philologie, vii. (1884) pp. 347 sq.; Aug. Mommsen, Über die Zeit der Olympien (Leipsic, 1891); and my note on Pausanias, v. 9. 3 (vol. iii. pp. 488 sq.).

A. B. Cook, “The European Sky-God,” Folk-lore, xv. (1904) pp. 398-402.

Rapp, in W. H. Roscher's Lexikon d. griech. und röm. Mythologie, i. 2005 sqq.

Pausanias, v. 15. 3, with my note; Schol. on Pindar, Olymp. iii. 60.

Pausanias, v. 11. 1.

Pausanias, v. 16. 2 sqq.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, vol. ii. p. 143.

Pausanias, v. 16. 4.

Many years after the theory in the text was printed (for the present volume has been long in the press) I accidentally learned that my friend Mr. F. M. Cornford, Fellow and Lecturer of Trinity College, Cambridge, had quite independently arrived at a similar conclusion with regard to the mythical and dramatic parts played by the Olympic victors, male and female, as representatives of the Sun and Moon, and I had the pleasure of hearing him expound the theory in a brilliant lecture delivered before the Classical Society of Cambridge, 28th February 1911. The coincidence of two independent enquirers in conclusions, which can hardly be called obvious, seems to furnish a certain confirmation of their truth. In Mr. Cornford's case the theory in question forms part of a more elaborate and comprehensive hypothesis as to the origin of the Olympic games, concerning which I must for the present suspend my judgment.

Herodian, v. 6. 3-5.

Clement of Alexandria, Protrept. ii. 34, p. 29, ed. Potter. The following account of funeral games is based on my note on Pausanias i. 44. 8 (vol. ii. pp. 549 sq.). Compare W. Ridgeway, The Origin of Tragedy (Cambridge, 1910), pp. 32 sqq.

Clement of Alexandria, l.c.

Pausanias, v. 13. 1 sq.

Scholiast on Pindar, Olymp. i. 146.

Varro, cited by Servius, on Virgil, Aen. iii. 67.

F. Bonney, “On some Customs of the Aborigines of the River Darling,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xiii. (1884) pp. 134 sq.; Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, pp. 507, 509 sq.; (Sir) G. Grey, Journals of Two Expeditions of Discovery in North-West and Western Australia (London, 1841), ii. 332.

Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits, vi. (Cambridge, 1908) pp. 135, 154.

Hyginus, Fabulae, 74; Apollodorus, iii. 6. 4; Schol. on Pindar, Pyth., Introduction; Pausanias, ii. 15. 2 sq.; Clement of Alexandria, Protrept. ii. 34, p. 29, ed. Potter.

Scholiast on Pindar, Isthm., Introduction, p. 514, ed. Boeckh; Pausanias, i. 44. 8; Apollodorus, iii. 4. 3; Zenobius, iv. 38; Clement of Alexandria, l.c.; J. Tzetzes, Scholia on Lycophron, 107, 229; Scholia on Euripides, Medea, 1284; Hyginus, Fabulae, 2.

Clement of Alexandria, l.c.; Hyginus, Fabulae, 140.

Homer, Iliad, xxiii. 255 sqq., 629 sqq., 651 sqq.

Herodotus, vi. 38.

Pausanias, iii. 14. 1.

Plutarch, De sera numinis vindicta, 17.

Thucydides, v. 10 sq.

Plutarch, Timoleon, 39.

Aulus Gellius, x. 18. 5 sq.

Arrian, vii. 14. 10.

Herodotus, i. 167.

Plutarch, Aristides, 21; Strabo, ix. 2. 31, p. 412; Pausanias, ix. 2. 5 sq.

Philostratus, Vit. Sophist. ii. 30; Heliodorus, Aethiopica, i. 17; compare Aristotle, Constitution of Athens, 58.

Herodotus, v. 8.

Livy, xxiii. 30. 15.

Livy, xxxi. 50. 4.

Livy, xxxix. 46. 2 sq.

Census of India, 1901, vol. iii., The Andaman and Nicobar Islands, by Lieut.-Col. Sir Richard C. Temple (Calcutta, 1903), p. 209.

Letter of the missionary Chevron, in Annales de la Propagation de la Foi, xv. (1843) pp. 40 sq.

É. Aymonier, Voyage dans le Laos (Paris, 1895-1897), ii. 325 sq.; C. Bock, Temples and Elephants (London, 1884), p. 262.

A. de Levchine, Description des hommes et des steppes des Kirghiz-Kazaks ou Kirghiz-Kaisaks (Paris, 1840), pp. 367 sq.; H. Vambery, Das Türkenvolk (Leipsic, 1885), p. 255; P. von Stenin, “Die Kirgisen des Kreises Saissanak im Gebiete von Ssemipalatinsk,” Globus, lxix. (1906) p. 228.

T. de Pauly, Description ethnographique des peuples de la Russie (St. Petersburg, 1862), Peuples ouralo-altaïques, p. 29.

Charlevoix, Histoire de la Nouvelle France (Paris, 1744), vi. 111.

I. Goldziher, Muhammedanische Studien (Halle a. S., 1888-1890), ii. 328 sq. However, Prof. Goldziher believes that the festival is an ancient heathen one which has been subsequently grafted upon the tradition of the orthodox prophet Salih.

J. Potocki, Voyage dans les steps d'Astrakhan et du Caucase (Paris, 1829), i. 275 sq.; Edmund Spencer, Travels in Circassia, Krim Tartary, etc. (London, 1836) ii. 399.

G. Radde, Die Chews'uren und ihr Land (Cassel, 1878), pp. 95 sq.; Prince Eristow, “Die Pschawen und Chewsurier im Kaukasus,” Zeitschrift für allgemeine Erdkunde, Neue Folge, ii. (1857) p. 77.

C. v. Hahn, “Religiöse Anschauungen und Totengedächtnisfeier der Chewsuren,” Globus, lxxvi. (1899) pp. 211 sq.

N. v. Seidlitz, “Die Abchasen,” Globus, lxvi. (1894) pp. 42 sq.

(Sir) John Rhys, Celtic Heathendom (London, 1888), pp. 409 sq.; H. d'Arbois de Jubainville, Cours de littérature celtique, vii. (Paris, 1895) pp. 309 sqq.; P. W. Joyce, Social History of Ancient Ireland (London, 1903), ii. 438 sqq. “The aenach or fair was an assembly of the people of every grade without distinction; it was the most common kind of large public meeting, and its main object was the celebration of games, athletic exercises, sports, and pastimes of all kinds” (P. W. Joyce, op. cit. ii. 438). The Irish name is Tailltiu, genitive Taillten, accusative and dative Tailltin (Sir J. Rhys, op. cit. p. 409 note 1).

(Sir) John Rhys, Celtic Heathendom, p. 411; H. d'Arbois de Jubainville, Cours de littérature celtique, vii. 313 sqq.; P. W. Joyce, Social History of Ancient Ireland, ii. 434 sq., 441 sqq.

P. W. Joyce, op. cit. ii. 435.

P. W. Joyce, op. cit. ii. 434. Compare (Sir) J. Rhys, Celtic Heathendom, p. 411.

H. d'Arbois de Jubainville, Cours de littérature celtique, vii. 313.

H. d'Arbois de Jubainville, op. cit. vii. 310.

P. W. Joyce, op. cit. ii. 389, 439.

(Sir) J. Rhys, Celtic Heathendom, p. 410.

(Sir) J. Rhys, Celtic Heathendom, pp. 411 sq., quoting the substance of a note by Thos. Hearne, in his edition of Robert of Gloucester's Chronicles (Oxford, 1724), p. 679. As to the derivation of the word see New English Dictionary (Oxford, 1888- ) and W. W. Skeat, Etymological Dictionary of the English Language (Oxford, 1910), s.v. “Lammas.”

See above, p. 100.

See The Golden Bough, Second Edition, ii. 459 sqq.

See The Golden Bough, Second Edition, ii. 460, 463, 464 sq.

See above, pp. 14 sqq., 21, 27, 33, 36 sq.

See above, p. 98.

See above, p. 93.

Pausanias, v. 1. 4, v. 8. 1.

Apollodorus, Bibliotheca, pp. 183-185 ed. R. Wagner (Epitoma, ii. 3-9); Diodorus Siculus, iv. 73; Hyginus, Fabulae, 84; Schol. on Pindar, Olymp. i. 114; Servius on Virgil, Georg. iii. 7. See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 299 sq.

Strabo, vi. 3. 9, p. 284; K. O. Müller, Aeschylos Eumeniden (Göttingen, 1833), p. 144.

Pausanias, vi. 21. 9-11.

P. Jensen, Die Kosmologie der Babylonier (Strasburg, 1890), pp. 263 sqq.; id., Assyrisch-babylonische Mythen und Epen (Berlin, 1900), pp. 3 sqq.; M. Jastrow, The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 407 sqq.; L. W. King, Babylonian Religion and Mythology, pp. 53 sqq.; H. Zimmern, in E. Schrader's Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament (Berlin, 1902), pp. 488 sqq.; M. J. Lagrange, Études sur les religions sémitiques2 (Paris, 1905); pp. 366 sqq.

P. Jensen, Die Kosmologie der Babylonier, pp. 304-306; H. Gunkel, Schöpfung und Chaos in Urzeit und Endzeit (Göttingen, 1895), pp. 114 sqq.; id., Genesis übersetzt und erklärt (Göttingen, 1901), pp. 107 sqq.; Encyclopaedia Biblica, s.v. “Creation,” i. coll. 938 sqq.; S. R. Driver, The Book of Genesis4 (London, 1905), pp. 27 sqq. The myth is clearly alluded to in several passages of Scripture, where the dragon of the sea is spoken of as Rahab or Leviathan. See Isaiah li. 9, “Art thou not it that cut Rahab in pieces, that pierced the dragon?”: id. xxvii. 1, “In that day the Lord with his sore and great and strong sword shall punish leviathan the swift serpent, and leviathan the crooked serpent; and he shall slay the dragon that is in the sea”: Job xxvi. 12, “He stirreth up the sea with his power, and by his understanding he smiteth through Rahab”: Psalm lxxxix. 10, “Thou hast broken Rahab in pieces as one that is slain”: Psalm lxxiv. 13 sq., “Thou didst divide the sea by thy strength: thou brakest the heads of the dragons in the waters. Thou brakest the heads of leviathan in pieces.” See further H. Gunkel, Schöpfung und Chaos, pp. 29 sqq.

A. A. Macdonell, Vedic Mythology, pp. 58-60, 158 sq. Compare H. Oldenberg, Die Religion des Veda, pp. 134 sqq.

See M. Winternitz, “Der Sarpabali, ein altindischer Schlangencult,” Mittheilungen der Anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien, xviii. (1888) pp. 44 sq.

A. Kuhn, “Wodan,” Zeitschrift für deutsches Alterthum, v. (1845) pp. 484-488.

P. Jensen, Die Kosmologie der Babylonier, pp. 315 sq.; H. Gunkel, Schöpfung und Chaos, p. 25; id., Genesis übersetzt und erklärt, pp. 115 sq.; M. Jastrow, The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 411 sq., 429 sq., 432 sq.; H. Zimmern, in Encyclopaedia Biblica, s.v. “Creation,” i. coll. 940 sq.; id., in E. Schrader's Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament,3 pp. 370 sq., 500 sq.; S. R. Driver, The Book of Genesis4 (London, 1905), p. 28.

Virgil, Georgics, ii. 336-342.

P. Jensen, Die Kosmologie der Babylonier, pp. 84 sqq.; M. Jastrow, The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 677 sqq.; H. Zimmern, in E. Schrader's Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament,3 pp. 371, 384 note 4, 402, 427, 515 sqq.; R. F. Harper, Babylonian and Assyrian Literature (New York, 1901), pp. 136, sq., 137, 140, 149; M. J. Lagrange, Études sur les religions sémitiques2 (Paris, 1905), pp. 285 sqq.

L. W. King, Babylonian Religion and Mythology, pp. 88 sqq.

See C. P. Tiele, Geschiedenis van den Godsdienst in de Oudheid, i. (Amsterdam, 1903) pp. 159 sq.; L. W. King, op. cit. p. 21; H. Zimmern. in E. Schrader's Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament,3 p. 399; M. Jastrow, Die Religion Babyloniens und Assyriens, i (Giessen, 1905) pp. 117 sqq.

P. Jensen, op. cit. pp. 85 sqq.; M. Jastrow, The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 679; H. Zimmern, op. cit. p. 515; M. J. Lagrange, op. cit. p. 286.

P. Jensen, op. cit. p. 87; M. Jastrow, The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 681; H. Zimmern, op. cit. pp. 402, 415; R. F. Harper, op. cit. p. 136.

P. Jensen, Assyrisch-babylonische Mythen und Epen, p. 29; L. W. King, Babylonian Religion and Mythology, p. 74.

This appears to be substantially the view of H. Zimmern (op. cit. p. 501) and of Karppe (referred to in Encyclopaedia Biblica, s.v. “Creation,” i. coll. 941 note 1).

A. Moret, Du caractère religieux de la royauté Pharaonique (Paris, 1902), pp. 18 sqq., 33 sqq.

Clement of Alexandria. Strom. v. 7. p. 671, ed. Potter.

A. Erman, Die ägyptische Religion (Berlin, 1905), pp. 10, 25.

John Parkinson (late Principal of the Mineral Survey of Southern Nigeria), “Southern Nigeria, the Lagos Province,” The Empire Review, vol. xv. May 1908, pp. 290 sq. The account in the text of the mystery surrounding the Awujale is taken from A. B. Ellis, The Yoruba-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast of West Africa (London, 1894), p. 170.

M. Jastrow, The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 680; H. Zimmern, in E. Schrader's Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament,3 pp. 374, 515; C. Brockelmann, “Wesen und Ursprung des Eponymats in Assyrien,” Zeitschrift für Assyriologie, xvi. (1902) pp. 391 sq., 396 sq.

Athenaeus, xiv. 44, p. 639 c; Dio Chrysostom, Or. iv. pp. 69 sq. (vol. i. p. 76, ed. L. Dindorf). Dio Chrysostom does not mention his authority, but it was probably either Berosus or Ctesias. The execution of the mock king is not noticed in the passage of Berosus cited by Athenaeus, probably because the mention of it was not germane to Athenaeus's purpose, which was simply to give a list of festivals at which masters waited on their servants. A passage of Macrobius (Saturn. iii. 7. 6) which has sometimes been interpreted as referring to this Babylonian custom (F. Liebrecht, in Philologus, xxii. 710; J. J. Bachofen, Die Sage von Tanaquil, p. 52, note 16) has in fact nothing to do with it. See A. B. Cook, in Classical Review, xvii. (1903) p. 412; id. in Folk-lore, xv. (1904) pp. 304, 384. In the passage of Dio Chrysostom ἐκρέμασαν should strictly mean “hanged,” but the verb was applied by the Greeks to the Roman punishment of crucifixion (Plutarch, Caesar, 2). It may have been extended to include impalement, which was often inflicted by the Assyrians, as we may see by the representations of it on the Assyrian monuments in the British Museum. See also R. F. Harper, Assyrian and Babylonian Literature, p. 41, with the plate facing p. 54. The proper word for impalement in Greek is ἀνασκολοπίζειν (Herodotus, iv. 202). Hanging was also an Oriental as well as Roman mode of punishment. The Hebrew word for it (חלה) seems unambiguous. See Esther, v. 14, vii. 9 sq.; Deuteronomy, xxi. 22 sq.; Joshua, viii. 29, x. 26; Livy, i. 26. 6.

See above, pp. 21, 26 sqq.

Bruno Meissner, “Zur Entstehungsgeschichte des Purimfestes,” Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft, I. (1896) pp. 296-301; H. Winckler, Altorientalische Forschungen, Zweite Reihe, Bd. ii. p. 345; C. Brockelmann, “Wesen und Ursprung des Eponymats in Assyrien,” Zeitschrift für Assyriologie, xvi. (1902) pp. 391 sq.

Meantime I may refer the reader to The Golden Bough, Second Edition, ii. 254, iii. 151 sqq. As I have there pointed out (iii. 152 sq.) the identification of the months of the Syro-Macedonian calendar (that is, the ascertainment of their astronomical dates in the solar year) is a matter of some uncertainty, the dates appearing to have varied considerably in different places. The month Lous in particular is variously said to have corresponded in different places to July, August, September, and October. Until we have ascertained beyond the reach of doubt when Lous fell at Babylon in the time of Berosus, it would be premature to allow much weight to the seeming discrepancy in the dates of Zagmuk and the Sacaea. On the whole difficult question of the identification or dating of the months of the Syro-Macedonian calendar see L. Ideler, Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie, i. 393 sqq.; K. F. Hermann, “Über griechische Monatskunde,” Abhandlungen der histor.-philolog. Classe d. kön. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen, ii. (1843-44) pp. 68 sqq., 95, 109, 111 sqq.; H. F. Clinton, Fasti Hellenici, iii.2 351 sqq.; article “Calendarium,” in W. Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities,3 i. 339. The distinction between the dates of the Syro-Macedonian months, which differed in different places, and their order, which was the same in all places (Dius, Apellaeus, etc.), appears to have been overlooked by some of my former readers.

P. Jensen, Die Kosmologie der Babylonier, p. 84; C. Brockelmann, “Wesen und Ursprung des Eponymats in Assyrien,” Zeitschrift für Assyriologie, xvi. (1902) p. 392. However, there is no mention of Zagmuk in Prof. R. F. Harper's translation of the inscription (Assyrian and Babylonian Literature, p. 87).

C. Brockelmann, op. cit. pp. 389-401.

H. Winckler, Geschichte Babyloniens und Assyriens (Leipsic, 1902), p. 212; R. F. Harper, Assyrian and Babylonian Literature, pp. xxxviii. sq., 206-216; E. Meyer, Geschichte des Altertums2, i. 2 (Stuttgart and Berlin, 1909), pp. 331 sq. It was the second, not the first, year of a king's reign which in later times at all events was named after him. For the explanation see C. Brockelmann, op. cit. pp. 397 sq.

The eponymate in Assyria and elsewhere may have been the subject of superstitions which we do not yet understand. Perhaps the eponymous magistrate may have been deemed in a sense responsible for everything that happened in the year. Thus we are told that “in Manipur they have a noteworthy system of keeping count of the years. Each year is named after some man, who—for a consideration—undertakes to bear the fortune, good or bad, of the year. If the year be good, if there be no pestilence and a good harvest, he gets presents from all sorts of people, and I remember hearing that in 1898, when the cholera was at its worst, a deputation came to the Political Agent and asked him to punish the name-giver, as it was obvious that he was responsible for the epidemic. In former times he would have got into trouble” (T. C. Hodson, “The Native Tribes of Manipur,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxi. 1901, p. 302).

C. Brockelmann, “Das Neujahrsfest der Jezîdîs,” Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft, lv. (1901) pp. 388-390.

Letter of the missionary N. Baudin, dated 16th April 1875, in Missions Catholiques, vii. (1875) pp. 614-616, 627 sq.; Annales de la Propagation de la Foi, xlviii. (1876) pp. 66-76.

U. Lisiansky, A Voyage Round the World in the Years 1803, 4, 5, and 6 (London, 1814), pp. 118 sq. The same ceremony seems to be more briefly described by the French voyager Freycinet, who says that after the principal idol had been carried in procession about the island for twenty-three days it was brought back to the temple, and that thereupon the king was not allowed to enter the precinct until he had parried a spear thrown at him by two men. See L. de Freycinet, Voyage autour du monde, vol. ii. Première Partie (Paris, 1829), pp. 596 sq.

R. E. Dennett, Notes on the Folklore of the Fjort, with an introduction by Mary H. Kingsley (London, 1898), p. xxxii; id., At the Back of the Black Man's Mind (London, 1906), p. 120. Miss Kingsley in conversation called my attention to this particular custom, and informed me that she was personally acquainted with the chief, who possesses but declines to exercise the right of succession.

The High History of the Holy Graal, translated from the French by Sebastian Evans (London, 1898), i. 200-203. I have to thank the translator, Mr. Sebastian Evans, for his kindness in indicating this passage to me.

For a discussion of the legends which gather round Vikramaditya see Captain Wilford, “Vicramaditya and Salivahana,” Asiatic Researches, ix. (London, 1809) pp. 117 sqq.; Chr. Lassen, Indische Alterthumskunde, ii.2 752 sqq., 794 sqq.; E. T. Atkinson, The Himalayan Districts of the North-Western Provinces of India, ii. (Allahabad, 1884), pp. 410. sqq. Vikramaditya is commonly supposed to have lived in the first century b.c. and to have founded the Samvat era, which began with 57 b.c., and is now in use all over India. But according to Professor H. Oldenberg it is now certain that this Vikramaditya was a purely legendary personage (H. Oldenberg, Die Literatur des alten Indien, Stuttgart and Berlin, 1903, pp. 215 sq.).

“Histoire des rois de l'Hindoustan après les Pandaras, traduite du texte hindoustani de Mîr Cher-i Alî Afsos, par M. l'abbé Bertrand,” Journal Asiatique, IVème Série, iii. (Paris, 1844) pp. 248-257. The story is told more briefly by Mrs. Postans, Cutch (London, 1839), pp. 21 sq. Compare Chr. Lassen, Indische Alterthumskunde, ii.2 798.

A. V. Williams Jackson, “Notes from India, Second Series,” Journal of the American Oriental Society, xxiii. (1902) pp. 308, 316 sq. I have to thank my friend the Rev. Professor J. H. Moulton for referring me to Prof. Williams Jackson's paper.

“Histoire des rois de l'Hindoustan,” Journal Asiatique, IVème Série, iii. (1844) pp. 239-243. The legend is told with modifications by Captain Wilford (“Vicramaditya and Salivahana,” Asiatic Researches, ix. London, 1809, pp. 148 sq.), Mrs. Postans (Cutch, London, 1839, pp. 18-20), and Prof. Williams Jackson (op. cit. pp. 314 sq.).

The Bishop of Labuan, “Wild Tribes of Borneo,” Transactions of the Ethnological Society of London, New Series, ii. (1863) pp. 26 sq.

Ch. Hose and W. McDougall, “The Relations between Men and Animals in Sarawak,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxi. (1901) pp. 197 sq.

Ch. Hose and W. McDougall, op. cit. p. 193.

Rev. E. H. Gomes, “Two Sea Dyak Legends,” Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, No. 41 (January 1904, Singapore), pp. 12-28; id., Seventeen Years among the Sea Dyaks of Borneo (London, 1911), pp. 278 sqq.

A. B. Ellis, The Tshi-speaking Peoples of the Gold Coast (London, 1887), pp. 204-212.

The type of story in question has been discussed by Mr. Andrew Lang in a well-known essay “Cupid, Psyche, and the Sun-Frog,” Custom and Myth (London, 1884), pp. 64-86. He rightly explains all such tales as based on savage taboos, but so far as I know he does not definitely connect them with totemism. For other examples of these tales told by savages see W. Lederbogen, “Duala Märchen,” Mittheilungen des Seminars für Orientalische Sprachen zu Berlin, v. (1902) Dritte Abtheilung, pp. 139-145 (the Duala tribe of Cameroons; in one tale the wife is a palm-rat, in the other a mpondo, a hard brown fruit as large as a coconut); R. H. Nassau, Fetichism in West Africa (London, 1904), pp. 351-358 (West Africa; wife a forest-rat); G. H. Smith, “Some Betsimisaraka Superstitions,” The Antananarivo Annual and Madagascar Magazine, No. 10 (Christmas, 1886), pp. 241 sq.; R. H. Codrington, The Melanesians, pp. 172, 397 sq. (Melanesia; wife a bird, husband an owl); A. F. van Spreeuwenberg, “Een blik op Minahassa,” Tijdschrift voor Neêrland's Indië, 1846, Erste deel, pp. 25-28 (the Bantiks of Celebes; wife a white dove); J. H. F. Kohlbrugge, “Die Tenggeresen, ein alter Javanischer Volksstaam,” Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië, iiii. (1901) pp. 97-99 (the Tenggeres of Java; wife a bird); J. Fanggidaej, “Rottineesche Verhalen,” Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië, lviii. (1905), pp. 430-436 (island of Rotti; husband a crocodile); J. Kubary, “Die Religion der Pelauer,” in A. Bastian's Allerlei aus Volkes- und Menschenkunde (Berlin, 1888), i. 60 sq. (Pelew Islands; wife a fish); A. R. McMahon, The Karens of the Golden Chersonese, pp. 248-250 (Karens of Burma; husband a tree-lizard); Landes, “Contes Tjames,” Cochinchine française, excursions et reconnaissances, No. 29 (Saigon, 1887), pp. 53 sqq. (Chams of Cochin-China; husband a coco-nut); A. Certeux and E. H. Carnoy, L'Algérie traditionnelle (Paris and Algiers, 1884), pp. 87-89 (Arabs of Algeria; wife a dove); J. G. Kohl, Kitschi-Gami (Bremen, 1858), i. 140-145 (Ojebway Indians; wife a beaver); Franz Boas and George Hunt, Kwakiutl Texts, ii. 322-330 (The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History) (Kwakiutl Indians; wife a salmon); J. R. Swanton, Haida Texts and Myths (Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin, No. 29, Washington, 1905), pp. 286 sq. (Haida Indians; wife a killer-whale); H. Rink, Tales and Traditions of the Eskimo, pp. 146 sq. (Esquimaux; wife a sea-fowl). The Bantik story is told to explain the origin of the people; the Tenggeres story is told to explain why it is forbidden to lift the lid of a basket in which rice is being boiled. The other stories referred to in this note are apparently told as fairy tales only, but we may conjecture that they too were related originally to explain a supposed relationship of human beings to animals or plants. I have already illustrated and explained this type of story in Totemism and Exogamy, vol. ii. pp. 55, 206, 308, 565-571, 589, iii. 60-64, 337 sq.

The fable of Cupid and Psyche is only preserved in the Latin of Apuleius (Metamorph. iv. 28-vi. 24), but we cannot doubt that the original was Greek. For the story of Pururavas and Urvasi, see The Rigveda, x. 95 (Hymns of the Rigveda, translated by R. T. H. Griffith, vol. iv. Benares, 1892, pp. 304 sqq.); Satapatha Brahmana, translated by J. Eggeling, part v. pp. 68-74 (Sacred Books of the East, vol. xliv.); and the references in The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, vol. ii. p. 250, note 4. A clear trace of the bird-nature of Urvasi occurs in the Satapatha Brahmana (Part v. p. 70 of J. Eggeling's translation), where the sorrowing husband finds his lost wife among nymphs who are swimming about in the shape of swans or ducks on a lotus-covered lake. This has been already pointed out by Th. Benfey (Pantschatantra, i. 264). In English the type of tale is known as “Beauty and the Beast,” which ought to include the cases in which the wife, as well as those in which the husband, appears as an animal. On stories of this sort, especially in the folklore of civilised peoples, see Th. Benfey, Pantschatantra, i. 254 sqq.; W. R. S. Ralston, Introduction to F. A. von Schiefner's Tibetan Tales, pp. xxxvii.-xxxix.; A. Lang, Custom and Myth (London, 1884), pp. 64 sqq.; S. Baring-Gould, Curious Myths of the Middle Ages, pp. 561-578; E. Cosquin, Contes populaires de Lorraine, ii. 215-230; W. A. Clouston, Popular Tales and Fictions, i. 182-191; Miss M. Roalfe Cox, Introduction to Folklore (London, 1895) pp. 120-123.

In the ruins of Raipoor, supposed to be the ancient Mandavie, coins are found bearing the image of an ass; and the legend of the transformation of Gandharva-Sena into an ass is told to explain their occurrence. The coins are called Gandharva pice. See Mrs. Postans, Cutch (London, 1839), pp. 17 sq., 22.

E. T. Dalton, Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal, pp. 165 sq.

T. C. Hodson, “The Native Tribes of Manipur,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxi. (1901) pp. 302, 304.

See above, pp. 118 sq.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, vol. ii. p. 4; Taboo and the Perils of the Soul, pp. 17 sqq.

See Dr. Joseph Bautz, Die Hölle, im Anschluss an die Scholastik dargestellt2 (Mainz, 1905). Dr. Bautz holds that the damned burn in eternal darkness and eternal fire somewhere in the bowels of the earth. He is, let us hope in more senses than one, an extraordinary professor of theology at the University of Münster, and his book is published with the approbation of the Catholic Church.

R. H. Elliot, Experiences of a Planter in the Jungles of Mysore (London, 1871), i. 95.

Mrs. Postans, Cutch (London, 1839), p. 168.

Mgr. Masson, in Annales de la Propagation de la Foi, xxiv. (1852) pp. 324 sq.

H. R. Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes of the United States, ii. (Philadelphia, 1853), p. 68.

F. de Azara, Voyages dans l'Amérique Méridionale, ii. 181.

A. B. Ellis, The Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast, p. 127. The testimony of a soldier on such a point is peculiarly valuable.

A. Thevet, Les Singularitez de la France Antarctique (Antwerp, 1558), pp. 74 sq.; id., Cosmographie universelle (Paris, 1575), p. 945 [979].

My informant was the late Captain W. C. Robinson, formerly of the 2nd Bombay Europeans (Company's Service), afterwards resident at 15 Chesterton Hall Crescent, Cambridge. He learned the facts in the year 1853 from his friend Captain Gore, of the 29th Madras Native Infantry, who rescued some of the victims.

Rev. J. Roscoe, The Baganda (London, 1911), p. 338.

See above, pp. 42 sqq., 54 sqq.

O. Dapper, Description de l'Afrique (Amsterdam, 1686), p. 312; H. Ling Roth, Great Benin, p. 43.

R. Southey, History of Brazil, iii. 391 sq.

Tacitus, Histor. ii. 49; Plutarch, Otho, 17.

R. Lasch, “Rache als Selbstmordmotiv,” Globus, lxxiv. (1898) pp. 37-39.

Father Martin, Jesuit missionary, in Lettres édifiantes et curieuses, Nouvelle Édition, xi. (Paris, 1781), pp. 246-248. The letter was written at Marava, in the mission of Madura, 8th November 1709. No doubt the English Government has long since done its best to suppress these practices.

Seleucus, quoted by Athenaeus, iv. 42, p. 155 d e.

Posidonius, quoted by Athenaeus, iv. 40, p. 154 b c.

Euphorion of Chalcis, quoted by Athenaeus, iv. 40, p. 154 C; Eustathius on Homer, Odyssey, xviii. 46, p. 1837.

Athenaeus, iv. 39, p. 153 e f, quoting Nicolaus Damascenus.

Tertullian, De spectaculis, 12. The custom of sacrificing human beings in honour of the dead, which has been practised by many savage and barbarous peoples, was in later times so far mitigated at Rome that the destined victims were allowed to fight each other, which gave some of them a chance of surviving. This mitigation of human sacrifice is said to have been introduced by D. Junius Brutus in the third century b.c. (Livy, Epit. xvi.). It resembles the change which I suppose to have taken place at Nemi and other places, where, if I am right, kings were at first put to death inexorably at the end of a fixed period, but were afterwards permitted to defend themselves in single combat.

Livy, ii. 5. 8, xxvi. 13. 15, xxviii. 29. 11; Polybius, i. 7. 12, xi. 30. 2; Th. Mommsen, Römisches Strafrecht (Leipsic, 1899), pp. 916 sqq.

Hiera Sykaminos (Maharraka), the furthest point of the Roman dominion in southern Egypt, lies within the tropics. The empire did not reach this its extreme limit till after the age of Augustus. See Th. Mommsen, Römische Geschichte, v. 594 sq. Strabo speaks (xvii. 1. 48, p. 817) as if Syene, which was held by a Roman garrison of three cohorts, were within the tropics; but that is a mistake.

For some evidence see J. H. Gray, China, i. 329 sqq.; H. Norman, The Peoples and Politics of the Far East (London, 1905), pp. 277 sq. On this subject the Rev. Dr. W. T. A. Barber, Headmaster of the Leys School, Cambridge, formerly a missionary in China, writes to me as follows (3rd February 1902):—“Undoubtedly the Eastern, through his belief in Fate, has comparatively little fear of death. I have sometimes seen the Chinese in great fear; but, on the other hand, I have saved at least a hundred lives of people who had swallowed opium out of spite against some one else, the idea being, first, the trouble given by minions of the law to the survivor; second, that the dead would gain a vantage ground by becoming a ghost, and thus able to plague his enemy in the flesh. Probably blind anger has more to do with it than either of these causes. But the particular mode would not ordinarily occur to a Western. I am bound to say that in many cases the patient was ready enough to take my medicines, but mostly it was the friends who were most eager, and exceedingly rarely did I receive thanks from the rescued.”

J. H. Gray (Archdeacon of Hong-kong), China (London, 1878), ii. 306.

The particulars in the text are taken, with Lord Avebury's kind permission, from a letter addressed to him by Mr. M. W. Lampson of the Foreign Office. See Note A at the end of the volume. Speaking of capital punishment in China, Professor E. H. Parker says: “It is popularly stated that substitutes can be bought for Taels 50, and most certainly this statement is more than true, so far as the price of human life is concerned; but it is quite another question whether the gaolers and judges can always be bribed” (E. H. Parker, Professor of Chinese at the Owens College, Manchester, China Past and Present, London, 1903, pp. 378 sq.). However, from his personal enquiries Professor Parker is convinced that in such matters the local mandarin can do what he pleases, provided that he observes the form of law and gives no offence to his superiors.

My friend, the late Sir Francis Galton, mentioned in conversation a phrase which described the fear of death as “the Western (or European) malady,” but he did not remember where he had met with it. He wrote to me (18th October 1902) that “our fear of death is presumably much greater than that of the barbarians who were our far-back ancestors.”

See above, pp. 23, 49 sqq., 52 sq.

See above, pp. 113 sqq.

E. Aymonier, Notice sur le Cambodge (Paris, 1875), p. 61; J. Moura, Le Royaume du Cambodge (Paris, 1883), i. 327 sq. For the connexion of the temporary king's family with the royal house, see E. Aymonier, op. cit. pp. 36 sq.

De la Loubère, Du royaume de Siam (Amsterdam, 1691), i. 56 sq.; Turpin, “History of Siam,” in Pinkerton's Voyages and Travels, ix. 581 sq.; Mgr. Brugière, in Annales de l'Association de la Propagation de la Foi, v. (1831) pp. 188 sq.; Pallegoix, Description du royaume Thai ou Siam (Paris, 1854), i. 250; A. Bastian, Die Völker des östlichen Asien, iii. 305-309, 526-528. Bowring (Siam, i. 158 sq.) copies, as usual, from Pallegoix. For a description of the ceremony as observed at the present day, see E. Young, The Kingdom of the Yellow Robe (Westminster, 1898), pp. 210 sq. The representative of the king no longer enjoys his old privilege of seizing any goods that are exposed for sale along the line of the procession. According to Mr. Young, the ceremony is generally held about the middle of May, and no one is supposed to plough or sow till it is over. According to Loubère the title of the temporary king was Oc-ya Kaou, or Lord of the Rice, and the office was regarded as fatal, or at least calamitous “funeste”) to him.

Lieut.-Col. James Low, “On the Laws of Muung Thai or Siam,” Journal of the Indian Archipelago, i. (Singapore, 1847) p. 339; A. Bastian, Die Völker des östlichen Asien, iii. 98, 314, 526 sq.

E. Young, The Kingdom of the Yellow Robe, pp. 212-217. The writer tells us that though the Minister for Agriculture still officiates at the Ploughing Festival, he no longer presides at the Swinging Festival; a different nobleman is chosen every year to superintend the latter.

Ed. Chavannes, Documents sur les Tou-Kiue (Turcs) Occidentaux (St. Petersburg, 1903), p. 133, note. The documents collected in this volume are translated from the Chinese.

C. B. Klunzinger, Bilder aus Oberägypten der Wüste und dem Rothen Meere (Stuttgart, 1877), pp. 180 sq.

Taboo and the Perils of the Soul, p. 243. For evidence of a practice of burning divine personages, see Adonis, Attis, Osiris, Second Edition, pp. 84 sqq., 91 sqq., 139 sqq.

Budgett Meakin, The Moors (London, 1902), pp. 312 sq.; E. Aubin, Le Maroc d'aujourd'hui (Paris, 1904), pp. 283-287. According to the latter of these writers the flight of the mock sultan takes place the day after his meeting with the real sultan. The account in the text embodies some notes which were kindly furnished me by Dr. E. Westermarck.

R. Carew, Survey of Cornwall (London, 1811), p. 322. I do not know what the writer means by “little Easter Sunday.” The ceremony has often been described by subsequent writers, but they seem all to copy, directly or indirectly, from Carew, who says that the custom had been yearly observed in past times and was only of late days discontinued. His Survey of Cornwall was first printed in 1602. I have to thank Mr. G. M. Trevelyan, formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, for directing my attention to this interesting survival of what was doubtless a very ancient custom.

J. W. Boers, “Oud volksgebruik in het Rijk van Jambi,” Tijdschrift voor Neêrlands Indië, 1840, dl. i. pp. 372 sqq.

Panjab Notes and Queries, i. p. 86, § 674 (May 1884).

Aeneas Sylvius, Opera (Bâle, 1571), pp. 409 sq.; J. Boemus, Mores, leges, et ritus omnium gentium (Lyons, 1541), pp. 241 sq.; J. Grimm, Deutsche Rechtsalterthümer, p. 253. According to Grimm, the cow and mare stood beside the prince, not the peasant. The Carinthian ceremony is the subject of an elaborate German dissertation by Dr. Emil Goldmann (Die Einführung der deutschen Herzogsgeschlechter Kärntens in den Slovenischen Stammesverband, ein Beitrag zur Rechts- und Kulturgeschichte, Breslau, 1903).

E. Young, The Kingdom of the Yellow Robe, p. 211.

Lasicius, “De diis Samagitarum caeterorumque Sarmatarum,” in Respublica sive status regni Poloniae, Lituaniae, Prussiae, Livoniae, etc. (Elzevir, 1627), pp. 306 sq.; id., edited by W. Mannhardt in Magazin herausgegeben von der Lettisch-Literarischen Gesellschaft, xiv. 91 sq.; J. G. Kohl, Die deutsch-russischen Ostseeprovinzen (Dresden and Leipsic, 1841), ii. 27. There, are, however, other occasions when superstition requires a person to stand on one foot. At Toku-toku, in Fiji, the grave-digger who turns the first sod has to stand on one leg, leaning on his digging-stick (Rev. Lorimer Fison, in a letter to the author, dated August 26, 1898). Among the Angoni of British Central Africa, when the corpse of a chief is being burned, his heir stands beside the blazing pyre on one leg with his shield in his hand; and three days later he again stands on one leg before the assembled people when they proclaim him chief. See R. Sutherland Rattray, Some Folk-lore Stories and Songs in Chinyanja (London, 1907), pp. 100, 101.

E. Young, The Kingdom of the Yellow Robe, p. 212.

J. G. Kohl, Die deutsch-russischen Ostseeprovinzen, ii. 25. With regard to swinging as a magical or religious rite, see Note B at the end of the volume. For other charms to make the crops grow tall by leaping, letting the hair hang loose, and so forth, see The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, i. 135 sqq.

Macrobius, Saturn. v. 19. 13.

See Taboo and the Perils of the Soul, pp. 225 sqq.

Sir John Malcolm, History of Persia (London, 1815), i. 527 sq. I am indebted to my friend Mr. W. Crooke for calling my attention to this passage.

Captain John Stevens, The History of Persia (London, 1715), pp. 356 sq. I have to thank Mr. W. Crooke for his kindness in copying out this passage and sending it to me. I have not seen the original. An Irish legend relates how the abbot Eimine Ban and forty-nine of his monks sacrificed themselves by a voluntary death to save Bran úa Faeláin, King of Leinster, and forty-nine Leinster chiefs, from a pestilence which was then desolating Leinster. They were sacrificed in batches of seven a day for a week, the abbot himself perishing after the last batch on the last day of the week. But it is not said that the abbot enjoyed regal dignity during the seven days. See C. Plummer, “Cáin Eimíne Báin,” Ériu, the Journal of the School of Irish Learning, Dublin. vol. iv. part i. (1908) pp. 39-46. The legend was pointed out to me by Professor Kuno Meyer.

“Ynglinga Saga,” 29, in The Heimskringla or Chronicle of the Kings of Norway, translated from the Icelandic of Snorro Sturleson, by S. Laing (London, 1844), i. 239 sq.; H. M. Chadwick, The Cult of Othin (London, 1899), pp. 4, 27. I have already cited the tradition as evidence of a nine years' tenure of the kingship in Sweden. See above, p. 57, with note 2.

Herodotus, vii. 197; Apollodorus, i. 9. 1 sq.; Schol. on Aristophanes, Clouds, 257; J. Tzetzes, Schol. on Lycophron, 21, 229; Schol. on Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica, ii. 653; Eustathius, on Homer, Iliad, vii. 86, p. 667; id., on Odyssey, v. 339, p. 1543; Pausanias, i. 44. 7, ix. 34. 7; Zenobius, iv. 38; Plutarch, De superstitione, 5; Hyginus, Fab. 1-5; id., Astronomica, ii. 20; Servius, on Virgil, Aen. v. 241. The story is told or alluded to by these writers with some variations of detail. In piecing their accounts together I have chosen the features which seemed to be the most archaic. According to Pherecydes, one of the oldest writers on Greek legendary history, Phrixus offered himself as a voluntary victim when the crops were perishing (Schol. on Pindar, Pyth. iv. 288). On the whole subject see K. O. Müller, Orchomenus und die Minyer,2 pp. 156, 171.

Plato, Minos, p. 315 c.

Plutarch, Quaest. Graec. 38; Antoninus Liberalis, Transform. 10; Ovid, Metam. iv. 1 sqq.

Pausanias, ix. 34. 5 sqq.; Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica, iii. 265 sq.; Hellanicus, cited by the Scholiast on Apollonius, l.c. Apollodorus speaks of Athamas as reigning over Boeotia (Bibliotheca, i. 9. 1); Tzetzes calls him king of Thebes (Schol. on Lycophron, 21).

The old Scholiast on Apollonius Rhodius (Argon. ii. 653) tells us that down to his time it was customary for one of the descendants of Athamas to enter the town-hall and sacrifice to Laphystian Zeus. K. O. Müller sees in this custom a mitigation of the ancient rule—instead of being themselves sacrificed, the scions of royalty were now permitted to offer sacrifice (Orchomenus und die Minyer,2 p. 158). But this need not have been so. The obligation to serve as victims in certain circumstances lay only on the eldest male of each generation in the direct line; the sacrificers may have been younger brothers or more remote relations of the destined victims. It may be observed that in a dynasty of which the eldest males were regularly sacrificed, the kings, if they were not themselves the victims, must always have been younger sons.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, vol. i. p. 310.

I have followed K. O. Müller (Orchomenus und die Minyer,2 pp. 160, 166 sq.) in regarding the ram which saved Phrixus as a mythical expression for the substitution of a ram for a human victim. He points out that a ram was the proper victim to sacrifice to Trophonius (Pausanias, ix. 39. 6), whose very ancient worship was practised at Lebadea not far from Orchomenus. The principle of vicarious sacrifices was familiar enough to the Greeks, as K. O. Müller does not fail to indicate. At Potniae, near Thebes, goats were substituted as victims instead of boys in the sacrifices offered to Dionysus (Pausanias, ix. 8. 2). Once when an oracle commanded that a girl should be sacrificed to Munychian Artemis in order to stay a plague or famine, a goat dressed up as a girl was sacrificed instead (Eustathius on Homer, Iliad, ii. 732, p. 331; Apostolius, vii. 10; Paroemiogr. Graeci, ed. Leutsch et Schneidewin, ii. 402; Suidas, s.v. Ἔμβαρος). At Salamis in Cyprus a man was annually sacrificed to Aphrodite and afterwards to Diomede, but in later times an ox was substituted (Porphyry, De abstinentia, ii. 54). At Laodicea in Syria a deer took the place of a maiden as the victim yearly offered to Athena (Porphyry, op. cit. ii. 56). Since human sacrifices have been forbidden by the Dutch Government in Borneo, the Barito and other Dyak tribes of that island have kept cattle for the sole purpose of sacrificing them instead of human beings at the close of mourning and at other religious ceremonies. See A. W. Nieuwenhuis, Quer durch Borneo, ii. (Leyden, 1907), p. 127.

Philo of Byblus, quoted by Eusebius, Praeparatio Evangelii, i. 10. 29 sq.

2 Kings iii. 27.

On this subject see Dr. G. F. Moore, s.v. “Molech, Moloch,” Encyclopaedia Biblica, iii. 3183 sqq.; C. P. Tiele, Geschichte der Religion im Altertum, i. (Gotha, 1896) pp. 240-244.

Porphyry, De abstinentia, ii. 56.

Plato, Minos, p. 315 c.

Plutarch, Regum et imperatorum apophthegmata, Gelon I.

Diodorus Siculus, xx. 14. Compare Clitarchus, cited by Suidas, s.v. σαρδάνιος γέλως, and by the Scholiast on Plato, Republic, p. 337 a; J. Selden, De dis Syris (Leipsic, 1668), pp. 169 sq.

Plutarch, De superstitione, 13. Egyptian mothers were glad and proud when their children were devoured by the holy crocodiles. See Aelian, De natura animalium, x. 21; Maximus Tyrius, Dissert. viii. 5; Josephus, Contra Apion. ii. 7.

Tertullian, Apologeticus, 6. Compare Justin, xviii. 6. 12; Ennius, cited by Festus, s.v. “Puelli,” pp. 248, 249, ed. C. O. Müller; Augustine, De civitate Dei, vii. 19 and 26.

“Every abomination to the Lord, which he hateth, have they done unto their gods; for even their sons and their daughters do they burn in the fire to their gods,” Deuteronomy xii. 31. Here and in what follows I quote the Revised English Version.

Deuteronomy xviii. 9-12.

Leviticus xviii. 21.

Psalms cvi. 35-38.

2 Kings xvii. 16, 17.

“And they have built the high places of Topheth, which is in the valley of the son of Hinnom, to burn their sons and their daughters in the fire,” Jeremiah vii. 31; “And have built the high places of Baal, to burn their sons in the fire for burnt offerings unto Baal,” id. xix. 5; “And they built the high places of Baal, which are in the valley of the son of Hinnom, to cause their sons and their daughters to pass through the fire unto Molech,” id. xxxii. 35; “Moreover thou hast taken thy sons and thy daughters, whom thou hast borne unto me, and these hast thou sacrificed unto them to be devoured. Were thy whoredoms a small matter, that thou hast slain my children, and delivered them up, in causing them to pass through the fire unto them?” Ezekiel xvi. 20 sq.; compare xx. 26, 31. A comparison of these passages shews that the expression “to cause to pass through the fire,” so often employed in this connexion in Scripture, meant to burn the children in the fire. Some have attempted to interpret the words in a milder sense. See J. Spencer, De legibus Hebraeorum (The Hague, 1686), i. 288 sqq.

2 Chronicles xxviii. 3. In the corresponding passage of 2 Kings (xvi. 3) it is said that Ahaz “made his son to pass through the fire.”

2 Chronicles xxxiii. 6; compare 2 Kings xxi. 6.

2 Kings xxiii. 10.

Jerome on Jeremiah vii. 31, quoted in Winer's Biblisches Realwôrterbuch,2 s.v. “Thopeth.”

The Tel El-Amarna tablets prove that “the prae-Israelitish inhabitants of Canaan were closely akin to the Hebrews, and that they spoke substantially the same language” (S. R. Driver, in Authority and Archaeology, Sacred and Profane, edited by D. G. Hogarth (London, 1899), p. 76).

2 Kings xvii. 31. The identification of Sepharvaim is uncertain. See Encyclopaedia Biblica, iv. 4371 sq.

Micah vi. 6-8.

Ezekiel xx. 25, 26, 31.

Exodus xiii. 1 sq.

Exodus xiii. 12.

Exodus xxxiv. 19. In the Authorised Version the passage runs thus: “All that openeth the matrix is mine; and every firstling among thy cattle, whether ox or sheep, that is male.”

Exodus xxii. 29 sq. The Authorised Version has “the first of thy ripe fruits" instead of "the abundance of thy fruits.”

Numbers xviii. 17 sq. Elsewhere, however, we read: “All the firstling males that are born of thy herd and of thy flock thou shalt sanctify unto the Lord thy God: thou shalt do no work with the firstling of thine ox, nor shear the firstling of thy flock. Thou shalt eat it before the Lord thy God year by year in the place which the Lord shall choose, thou and thy household,” Deuteronomy xv. 19 sq. Compare Deuteronomy xii. 6 sq., 17 sq. To reconcile this ordinance with the other we must suppose that the flesh was divided between the Levite and the owner of the animal. But perhaps the rule in Deuteronomy may represent the old custom which obtained before the rise of the priestly caste. Prof. S. R. Driver inclines to the latter view (Commentary on Deuteronomy, p. 187).

Exodus xiii. 13, xxxiv. 20.

Numbers xviii. 15 sq. Compare Numbers iii. 46-51; Exodus xiii. 13, xxxiv. 20.

Exodus xi.-xiii. 16; Numbers iii. 13, viii. 17. While many points in this strange story remain obscure, the reason which moved the Israelites of old to splash the blood of lambs on the doorposts of their houses at the Passover may perhaps have been not very different from that which induces the Sea Dyaks of Borneo to do much the same thing at the present day. “When there is any great epidemic in the country—when cholera or smallpox is killing its hundreds on all sides—one often notices little offerings of food hung on the walls and from the ceiling, animals killed in sacrifice, and blood splashed on the posts of the houses. When one asks why all this is done, they say they do it in the hope that when the evil spirit, who is thirsting for human lives, comes along and sees the offerings they have made and the animals killed in sacrifice, he will be satisfied with these things, and not take the lives of any of the people living in the Dyak village house” (E. H. Gomes, Seventeen Years among the Sea Dyaks of Borneo, London, 1911, p. 201). Similarly in Western Africa, when a pestilence or an attack of enemies is expected, it is customary to sacrifice sheep and goats and smear their blood on the gateways of the village (Miss Mary H. Kingsley, Travels in West Africa, p. 454, compare p. 45). In Peru, when an Indian hut is cleansed and whitewashed, the blood of a llama is always sprinkled on the doorway and internal walls in order to keep out the evil spirit (Col. Church, cited by E. J. Payne, History of the New World called America, i. 394, note 2). For more evidence of the custom of pouring or smearing blood on the threshold, lintel, and side-posts of doors, see Ph. Paulitschke, Ethnographie Nordost-Afrikas, die geistige Cultur der Danâkil, Galla und Somâl (Berlin, 1896), pp. 38, 48; J. Goldziher, Muhamedanische Studien, ii. 329; S. J. Curtiss, Primitive Semitic Religion To-day, pp. 181-193, 227 sq.; H. C. Trumbull, The Threshold Covenant (New York, 1896), pp. 4 sq., 8 sq., 26-28, 66-68. Perhaps the original intention of the custom was to avert evil influence, especially evil spirits, from the door.

Genesis xxii. 1-13.

See for example Father Baudin, in Missions Catholiques, xvi. (1894) p. 333; A. B. Ellis, The Yoruba-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast, pp. 105 sq.

W. E. Maxwell, “The Folklore of the Malays,” Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, No. 7 (June 1881), p. 14; W. W. Skeat, Malay Magic, p. 112. The bird in question is thought to be the goat-sucker or night-jar.

2 Kings iii. 27.

See above, pp. 166, 167.

As to the redemption of the firstborn among modern Jews, see L. Löw, Die Lebensalter in der jüdischen Literatur (Szegedin, 1875), pp. 110-118; Budgett Meakin, The Moors (London, 1902), pp. 440 sq.

J. Wellhausen, Prolegomena zur Geschichte Israels,3 p. 90; W. Robertson Smith, Religion of the Semites,2 p. 464. On the other hand, when I published the foregoing discussion in the second edition of my book, I was not aware that the conclusion reached in it had been anticipated by Prof. Th. Nöldeke, who has drawn the same inference from the same evidence. See Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft, xlii. (1888) p. 483. I am happy to find myself in agreement with so eminent an authority on Semitic antiquity.

R. Brough Smyth, Aborigines of Victoria, ii. 311. In the Luritcha tribe of central Australia “young children are sometimes killed and eaten, and it is not an infrequent custom, when a child is in weak health, to kill a younger and healthy one and then to feed the weakling on its flesh, the idea being that this will give the weak child the strength of the stronger one” (Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, p. 475). The practice seems to have been common among the Australian aborigines. See W. E. Stanbridge, quoted by R. Brough Smyth, op. cit. i. 52; A. W. Howitt, Native Tribes of South-East Australia, pp. 749, 750.

G. Scriviner, in E. Curr's The Australian Race, ii. 182.

A. W. Howitt, Native Tribes of South-East Australia, p. 750.

S. Gason, in E. Curr's The Australian Race, ii. 119.

Father Mazzuconi, in Annales de la Propagation de la Foi, xxvii. (1855) pp. 368 sq.

J. J. M. de Groot, Religious System of China, ii. 679, iv. 364.

J. J. M. de Groot, op. cit. iv. 365. On these Chinese reports Prof. de Groot remarks (op. cit. iv. 366): “Quite at a loss, however, we are to explain that eating of firstborn sons by their own nearest kinsfolk, absolutely inconsistent as it is with a primary law of tribal life in general, which imperiously demands that the tribe should make itself strong in male cognates, but not indulge in self-destruction by killing its natural defenders. We feel, therefore, strongly inclined to believe the statement fabulous.” Such scepticism implies an opinion of the good sense and foresight of savages which is far from being justified by the facts. Many savage tribes have “indulged in self-destruction” by killing a large proportion of their children, both male and female. See below, pp. 196 sq.

W. Crooke, Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India, ii. 169.

H. A. Rose, “Unlucky Children,” Folklore, xiii. (1902) p. 63; id., in Indian Antiquary, xxxi. (1902) pp. 162 sq. Mr. Rose is Superintendent of Ethnography in the Punjaub. The authorities cited by him are Moore's Hindu Infanticide, pp. 198 sq., and Sherring's Hindu Tribes and Castes, iii. p. 66.

Captain Philip Maud, “Exploration in the Southern Borderland of Abyssinia,” The Geographical Journal, xxiii. (1904) pp. 567 sq.

Exodus iv. 24-26.

Captain C. H. Stigand, To Abyssinia through an Unknown Land (London, 1910), pp. 234 sq.

J. Roscoe, “Further Notes on the Manners and Customs of the Baganda,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxii. (1902) p. 30. Mr. Roscoe informs me that a similar custom prevails also in Koki and Bunyoro.

J. L. Krapf, Travels, Researches, and Missionary Labours during an Eighteen Years' Residence in Eastern Africa (London, 1860), pp. 69 sq. Dr. Krapf, who reports the custom at second hand, thinks that the existence of the pillar may be doubted, but that the rest of the story harmonises well enough with African superstition.

J. Macdonald, Light in Africa2 (London, 1890), p. 156. In the text I have embodied some fuller explanations and particulars which my friend the Rev. Mr. Macdonald was good enough to send me in a letter dated September 16th, 1899. Among the tribes with which Mr. Macdonald is best acquainted the custom is obsolete and lives only in tradition; formerly it was universally practised.

F. J. Mone, Geschichte des Heidenthums im nördlichen Europa (Leipsic and Darmstadt, 1822-1823), i. 119.

Vallancey, Collectanea de rebus Hibernicis, vol. iii. (Dublin, 1786) p. 457; D. Nutt, The Voyage of Bran, ii. 149-151, 304 sq.; P. W. Joyce, Social History of Ancient Ireland, i. 275 sq., 281-284. The authority for the tradition is the Dinnschenchas or Dinnsenchus, a document compiled in the eleventh and twelfth centuries out of older materials. Mr. Joyce discredits the tradition of human sacrifice.

Fr. Boas, in “Fourth Annual Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada,” Report of the British Association for 1888, p. 242; id., in Fifth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada, p. 52 (separate reprint from the Report of the British Association for 1889).

Fr. Boas, in Fifth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada, p. 46 (separate reprint from the Report of the British Association for 1889).

W. Strachey, Historie of travaile into Virginia Britannia (Hakluyt Society, London, 1849), p. 84.

J. Bricknell, The Natural History of North Carolina (Dublin, 1737), pp. 342 sq. I have taken the liberty of altering slightly the writer's somewhat eccentric punctuation.

See above, p. 162.

A. de Herrera, The General History of the Vast Continent and Islands of America, translated by Capt. John Stevens (London, 1725-6), iv. 347 sq. Compare J. de Acosta, Natural and Moral History of the Indies (Hakluyt Society, London, 1880), ii. 344.

Fr. Xeres, Relation véridique de la conquête du Perou et de la Province de Cuzco nommée Nouvelle-Castille (in H. Ternaux-Compans's Voyages, relations et mémoires, etc., Paris, 1837), p. 53.

Juan de Velasco, Histoire du royaume de Quito, i. (Paris, 1840) p. 106 (forming vol. xviii. of H. Ternaux-Compans's Voyages, relations et mémoires, etc.).

A. R. Wallace, Narrative of Travels on the Amazon and Rio Negro (London, 1889), p. 355.

W. Barbrooke Grubb, An Unknown People in an Unknown Land (London, 1911), p. 233.

Festus, De verborum significatione, s.vv. “Mamertini,” “Sacrani,” and “Ver sacrum,” pp. 158, 370, 371, 379, ed. C. O. Müller; Servius on Virgil, Aen. vii. 796; Nonius Marcellus, s.v. “ver sacrum,” p. 522 (p. 610, ed. Quicherat); Varro, Rerum rusticarum, iii. 16. 29; Dionysius Halicarnasensis, Antiquit. Rom. i. 16 and 23 sq., ii. 1. 2.

Strabo, v. 4. 2 and 12; Pliny, Nat. hist. iii. 110; Festus, De verborum significatione, s.v. “Irpini,” ed. C. O. Müller, p. 106. It is worthy of note that the three swarms which afterwards developed into the Piceni, the Samnites, and the Hirpini were said to have been guided by a woodpecker, a bull, and a wolf respectively, of which the woodpecker (picus) and the wolf (hirpus) gave their names to the Piceni and the Hirpini. The tradition may perhaps preserve a trace of totemism, but in the absence of clearer evidence it would be rash to assume that it does so. The woodpecker was sacred among the Latins, and a woodpecker as well as a wolf is said to have fed the twins Romulus and Remus (Plutarch, Quaest. Rom. 21; Ovid, Fasti, iii. 37 sq.). Does this legend point to the existence of a wolf-clan and a woodpecker-clan at Rome? There was perhaps a similar conjunction of wolf and woodpecker at Soracte, for the woodpecker is spoken of as the bird of Feronia (“picus Feronius,” Festus, s.v. “Oscines,” p. 197, ed. C. O. Müller), a goddess in whose sanctuary at Soracte certain men went by the name of Soranian Wolves (Servius, on Virgil, Aen. xi. 785; Pliny, Nat. hist. vii. 19; Strabo, v. 2. 9). These “Soranian Wolves” will meet us again later on.

Livy, xxii. 9 sq.; Plutarch, Fabius Maximus, 4.

Livy, xxxiv. 44.

Dionysius Halicarnasensis, Antiquit. Rom. i. 24.

Schwegler thought it hardly open to question that the “sacred spring” was a substitute for an original custom of human sacrifice (Römische Geschichte, i. 240 sq.). The inference is denied on insufficient grounds by R. von Ihering (Vorgeschichte der Indoeuropäer, pp. 309 sqq.).

Dionysius Halicarnasensis, Antiquit. Rom. i. 16. 1. Rhegium in Italy was founded by Chalcidian colonists, who in obedience to the Delphic Oracle had been dedicated as a tithe-offering to Apollo on account of a dearth (Strabo, vi. 1. 6, p. 257). Justin speaks of the Gauls sending out three hundred thousand men, “as it were a sacred spring,” to seek a new home (Justin, xxiv. 4. 1).

The Australian aborigines resort to infanticide to keep down the number of a family. But “the number is kept down, not with any idea at all of regulating the food supply, so far as the adults are concerned, but simply from the point of view that, if the mother is suckling one child, she cannot properly provide food for another, quite apart from the question of the trouble of carrying two children about. An Australian native never looks far enough ahead to consider what will be the effect on the food supply in future years if he allows a particular child to live; what affects him is simply the question of how it will interfere with the work of his wife so far as their own camp is concerned” (Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, p. 264).

See above, pp. 57, 160 sq.

Above, p. 185.

Father Baudin, “Le Fétichisme,” Missions Catholiques, xvi. (1884) p. 259.

The Laws of Manu, ix. 8, p. 329, G. Bühler's translation (Sacred Books of the East, vol. xxv.). On this Hindoo doctrine of reincarnation, its logical consequences and its analogies in other parts of the world, see J. von Negelein, “Eine Quelle der indischen Seelenwanderungvorstellung,” Archiv für Religionswissenschaft, vi. (1903) pp. 320-333. Compare E. S. Hartland, The Legend of Perseus, i. 218 sq.; id., Primitive Paternity (London, 1909-1910), ii. 196 sqq.

H. A. [J. A.] Rose, “Unlucky and Lucky Children, and some Birth Superstitions,” Indian Antiquary, xxxi. (1902) p. 516; id., in Folklore, xiii. (1902) pp. 278 sq. As to the Khatris, see D. C. J. Ibbetson, Outlines of Panjab Ethnography, pp. 295 sq.; H. H. Risley, The Tribes and Castes of Bengal, i. 478 sqq.; W. Crooke, The Tribes and Castes of the North-western Provinces and Oudh, iii. 264 sqq.

The same suggestion has been made by Dr. E. Westermarck (The Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, i. (London, 1906) pp. 460 sq.). Some years ago, before the publication of his book and while the present volume was still in proof, Dr. Westermarck and I in conversation discovered that we had independently arrived at the same conjectural explanation of the custom of killing the firstborn.

Capt. J. Cook, Voyages (London, 1809), i. 225 sq.; Capt. J. Wilson, Missionary Voyage to the Southern Pacific Ocean (London, 1799), pp. 327, 330, 333; W. Ellis, Polynesian Researches,2 iii. 99-101; J. A. Mourenhout, Voyages aux îles du Grand Océan, ii. 13 sq.; Mathias G. ——, Lettres sur les Îles Marquises (Paris, 1843), pp. 103 sq.; H. Hale, United States Exploring Expedition, Ethnography and Philology (Philadelphia, 1846), p. 34.

W. Ellis, Polynesian Researches,2 i. 251-253.

J. E. Erskine, Journal of a Cruise among the Islands of the Western Pacific (London, 1853), p. 233.

J. Williams, Narrative of Missionary Enterprises in the South Sea Islands (London, 1836), pp. 117 sq.

J. Campbell, Travels in South Africa, Second Journey (London, 1822), ii. 276.

Hesiod, Theogony, 137 sqq., 453 sqq., 886 sqq.; Apollodorus, Bibliotheca, i. 1-3.

Above, pp. 179 sq. Traces of a custom of sacrificing the children instead of the father may perhaps be found in the legends that Menoeceus, son of Creon, died to save Thebes, and that one or more of the daughters of Erechtheus perished to save Athens. See Euripides, Phoenissae, 889 sqq.; Apollodorus, iii. 6. 7, iii. 15. 4; Schol. on Aristides, Panathen. p. 113, ed. Dindorf; Cicero, Tuscul., i. 48. 116; id., De natura deorum, iii. 19. 50; W. H. Roscher, Lexikon d. griech. und röm. Mythologie, i. 1298 sq., ii. 2794 sq.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, vol. ii. pp. 269 sqq.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, vol. ii. p. 283. The Oedipus legend would conform still more closely to custom if we could suppose that marriage with a mother was formerly allowed in cases where the king had neither a sister nor a stepmother, by marrying whom he could otherwise legalise his claim to the throne.

Examples of this custom are collected by me in a note on Pausanias, i. 7. 1 (vol. ii. p. 85). For other instances see V. Noel, “Île de Madagascar, recherches sur les Sakkalava,” Bulletin de la Société de Géographie (Paris), Deuxième Série, xx. (Paris, 1843) pp. 63 sq. (among the Sakkalavas of Madagascar); V. L. Cameron, Across Africa (London, 1877), ii. 70, 149; J. Roscoe, “Further Notes on the Manners and Customs of the Baganda,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxii. (1902) p. 27 (among the Baganda of Central Africa); J. G. Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, ii. 523, 538 (among the Banyoro and Bahima); J. Dos Santos, “Eastern Ethiopia,” in G. McCall Theal's Records of South-Eastern Africa, vii. 191 (as to the kings of Sofala in eastern Africa). But Dos Santos's statement is doubted by Dr. McCall Theal (op. cit. p. 395).

This explanation of the custom was anticipated by McLennan: “Another rule of chiefly succession, which has been mentioned, that which gave the chiefship to a sister's son, appears to have been nullified in some cases by an extraordinary but effective expedient—by the chief, that is, marrying his own sister” (The Patriarchal Theory, based on the Papers of the late John Ferguson McLennan, edited and completed by Donald McLennan (London, 1885), p. 95).

Compare Cicero, De natura deorum, ii. 26. 66; [Plutarch], De vita et poesi Homeri, ii. 96; Lactantius, Divin. Inst. i. 10; Firmicus Maternus, De errore profanarum religionum, xii. 4.

Porphyry, De abstinentia, ii. 54.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 292 sqq.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 269 sqq.

Men and women of the Khlysti sect in Russia abhor marriage; and in the sect of the Skoptsi or Eunuchs the devotees mutilate themselves. See Sir D. Mackenzie Wallace, Russia. (London [1877]), p. 302. As to collective suicide, see above, pp. 43 sqq.

Above, p. 191.

Father Picarda, “Autour de Mandéra, notes sur l'Ouzigowa, l'Oukwéré et l'Oudoe (Zanguebar),” Missions Catholiques, xviii. (1886) p. 284.

The Strange Adventures of Andrew Battell (Hakluyt Society, 1901), pp. 32, 84 sq.

F. de Azara, Voyages dans l'Amérique Méridionale (Paris, 1809), ii. 115-117. The writer affirms that the custom was universally established among all the women of the Mbaya nation, as well as among the women of other Indian nations.

R. Southey, History of Brazil, iii. (London, 1819) p. 385.

W. Barbrooke Grubb, An Unknown People in an Unknown Land (London, 1911), p. 233.

Hugh Goldie, Calabar and its Mission, new edition with additional chapters by the Rev. John Taylor Dean (Edinburgh and London, 1901), pp. 34 sq., 37 sq. The preface to the original edition of this work is dated 1890. By this time the tribal suicide is probably complete.

See above, pp. 21, 23, 26 sq.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 410 sqq.

J. T. Nieuwenhuisen en H. C. B. von Rosenberg, “Verslag omtrent het eiland Nias,” Verhandelingen van het Batav. Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen, xxx. (1863) p. 85; H. von Rosenberg, Der Malayische Archipel, p. 160; L. N. H. A. Chatelin, “Godsdienst en bijgeloof der Niassers,” Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde, xxvi. (1880) pp. 142 sq.; H. Sundermann, “Die Insel Nias und die Mission daselbst,” Allgemeine Missions-Zeitschrift, xi. (1884) p. 445; E. Modigliani, Un Viaggio a Nías, pp. 277, 479 sq.; id., L'Isola delle Donne (Milan, 1894), p. 195.

Ch. Wilkes, Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition (London, 1845), iv. 453; United States Exploring Expedition, Ethnography and Philology, by H. Hale (Philadelphia, 1846), p. 203.

Brasseur de Bourbourg, Histoire des nations civilisées du Mexique et de l'Amérique-Centrale, ii. 574.

D. G. Brinton, Myths of the New World2 (New York, 1876), pp. 270 sq.

Relations des Jésuites, 1636, p. 130 (Canadian reprint, Quebec, 1858).

A. Bastian, Die Voelker des oestlichen Asien, iv. 386.

Servius on Virgil, Aen. iv. 685; Cicero, In Verr. ii. 5. 45; K. F. Hermann, Lehrbuch der griechischen Privatalterthümer, ed. H. Blümner, p. 362, note 1.

J. Harland and T. T. Wilkinson, Lancashire Folk-lore (London, 1882), pp. 7 sq.

The Travels of the Jesuits in Ethiopia, collected and historically digested by F. Balthazar Tellez (London, 1710), p. 198.

Ph. Paulitschke, Ethnographie Nordost-Afrikas, die geistige Cultur der Danâkil, Galla und Somâl (Berlin, 1896), p. 28.

This account I received from my friend the Rev. J. Roscoe in a letter dated Mengo, Uganda, April 27, 1900. See his “Further Notes on the Manners and Customs of the Baganda,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxii. (1902) pp. 42, 45 sq., where, however, the account is in some points not quite so explicit.

J. Dos Santos, “Eastern Ethiopia,” in G. McCall Theal's Records of South-eastern Africa, vii. 196 sq.

See above, p. 35.

See Taboo and the Perils of the Soul, pp. 423 sqq.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, i. 362 sqq.

A. Grandidier, “Madagascar,” Bull. de la Société de Géographie (Paris), VIème Série, iii. (1872) pp. 402 sq.

Nicolaus Damascenus, quoted by Stobaeus, Florilegium, cxxiii. 12 (Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum, ed. C. Müller, iii. 463). The Issedones of Scythia used to gild the skulls of their dead fathers and offer great sacrifices to them annually (Herodotus, iv. 26); they also used the skulls as drinking-cups (Mela, ii. 1. 9). The Boii of Cisalpine Gaul cut off the head of a Roman general whom they had defeated, and having gilded the scalp they used it as a sacred vessel for the pouring of libations, and the priests drank out of it (Livy, xxiii. 24. 12).

Sir H. Johnston, The Uganda Protectorate (London, 1902), ii. 828.

Missionary Holley, “Étude sur les Egbas,” Missions Catholiques, xiii. (1881) p. 353. The writer speaks of “le roi d'Alakei,” but this is probably a mistake or a misprint. As to the Alake or king of Abeokuta, see Sir William Macgregor, “Lagos, Abeokuta, and the Alake,” Journal of the African Society, No. xii. (July, 1904) pp. 471 sq. Some years ago the Alake visited England and I had the honour of being presented to his Majesty by Sir William Macgregor at Cambridge.

F. T. Valdez, Six Years of a Traveller's Life in Western Africa, ii. 161 sq.

Missionary Holley, in Annales de la Propagation de la Foi, liv. (1882) p. 87. The “King of Ake” mentioned by the writer is the Alake or king of Abeokuta; for Ake is the principal quarter of Abeokuta, and Alake means “Lord of Ake.” See Sir William Macgregor, l.c.

Extracted from a letter of Mr. Harold G. Parsons, dated Lagos, September 28th, 1903, and addressed to Mr. Theodore A. Cooke of 54 Oakley Street, Chelsea, London, who was so kind as to send me the letter with leave to make use of it. “It is usual for great chiefs to report or announce their succession to the Oni of Ife, or to the Alafin of Oyo, the intimation being accompanied by a present” (Sir W. Macgregor, l.c.).

See above, pp. 23, 26 sq. Dr. E. Westermarck has suggested as an alternative to the theory in the text, “that the new king is supposed to inherit, not the predecessor's soul, but his divinity or holiness, which is looked upon in the light of a mysterious entity, temporarily seated in the ruling sovereign, but separable from him and transferable to another individual.” See his article, “The Killing of the Divine King,” Man, viii. (1908) pp. 22-24. There is a good deal to be said in favour of Dr. Westermarck's theory, which is supported in particular by the sanctity attributed to the regalia. But on the whole I see no sufficient reason to abandon the view adopted in the text, and I am confirmed in it by the Shilluk evidence, which was unknown to Dr. Westermarck when he propounded his theory.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, i. 1 sqq., ii. 378 sqq.

See above, pp. 21 sq., 27 sq.

See above, pp. 47 sq.

Fr. Panzer, Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie (Munich, 1848-1855), i. 235 sq.; W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus (Berlin, 1875), pp. 320 sq. In some villages of Lower Bavaria one of the Pfingstl's comrades carries “the May,” which is a young birch-tree wreathed and decorated. Another name for this Whitsuntide masker, both in Lower and Upper Bavaria, is the Water-bird. Sometimes he carries a straw effigy of a monstrous bird with a long neck and a wooden beak, which is thrown into the water instead of the bearer. The wooden beak is afterwards nailed to the ridge of a barn, which it is supposed to protect against lightning and fire for a whole year, till the next Pfingstl makes his appearance. See Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern, i. 375 sq., 1003 sq. In Silesia the Whitsuntide mummer, called the Rauchfiess or Raupfiess, sometimes stands in a leafy arbour, which is mounted on a cart and drawn about the village by four or six lads. They collect gifts at the houses and finally throw the cart and the Rauchfiess into a shallow pool outside the village. This is called “driving out the Rauchfiess.” The custom used to be associated with the driving out of the cattle at Whitsuntide to pasture on the dewy grass, which was thought to make the cows yield plenty of milk. The herdsman who was the last to drive out his beasts on the morning of the day became the Rauchfiess in the afternoon. See P. Drechsler, Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien, i. (Leipsic, 1903), pp. 117-123.

E. Meier, Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben (Stuttgart, 1852), pp. 409-419; W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus, pp. 349 sq.

E. Sommer, Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus Sachsen und Thüringen (Halle, 1846), pp. 154 sq.; W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus, pp. 335 sq.

W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus, p. 336.

Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen (Prague, n.d., preface dated 1861), p. 61; W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus, pp. 336 sq.

Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen, p. 263; W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus, p. 343.

Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen, pp. 269 sq.

The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 86 sq.

Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen, pp. 264 sq.; W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus, pp. 353 sq.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 73 sqq.

See pp. 208, 210.

The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, i. 247 sqq., 272 sqq.

See above, p. 208.

Ovid, Fasti, iii. 271.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 308 sqq.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, i. 20.

Caesar, Bell. Gall. vi. 16; Adam of Bremen, Descriptio Insularum Aquilonis, 27 (Migne's Patrologia Latina, cxlvi. col. 644); Olaus Magnus, De gentium septrionalium variis conditionibus, iii. 7; J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 i. 35 sqq.; F. J. Mone, Geschichte des nordischen Heidenthums, i. 69, 119, 120, 149, 187 sq.

H. J. Tendeloo, “Verklaring van het zoogenaamd Oud-Alfoersch Teekenschrift,” Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap, xxxvi. (1892) pp. 338 sq.

Sir H. Johnston, The Uganda Protectorate (London, 1902), ii. 719 sq. The writer describes the ceremony from the testimony of an eye-witness.

J. G. Bourke, Snake Dance of the Moquis of Arizona, pp. 196 sq.

Euripides, Iphigenia in Taur. 1458 sqq.

J. T. Nieuwenhuisen en H. C. B. von Rosenberg, “Verslag omtrent het eiland Nias,” Verhandelingen van het Batav. Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen, xxx. (1863) p. 43; E. Modigliani, Un Viaggio a Nias (Milan, 1890), pp. 282 sq.

J. A. Dubois, Mæurs, institutions et cérémonies des peuples de l'Inde (Paris, 1825), i. 151 sq.

E. Thurston, Castes and Tribes of Southern India (Madras, 1909), iv. 437, quoting Mr. A. R. Loftus-Tottenham.

G. Turner, Samoa, pp. 31 sq.; compare pp. 38, 58, 59, 69 sq., 72.

Porphyry, De abstinentia, ii. 55, citing Manetho as his authority.

“The Rudhirádhyáyă, or sanguinary chapter,” translated from the Calica Puran by W. C. Blaquiere, in Asiatick Researches, v. 376 (8vo ed., London, 1807).

E. T. Dalton, Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal (Calcutta, 1872), p. 281.

E. T. Dalton, op. cit. pp. 258 sq.

Mgr. Bruguière, in Annales de l'Association de la Propagation de la Foi, v. (1831) p. 201.

B. C. A. J. van Dinter, “Eenige geographische en ethnographische aanteekeningen betreffende het eiland Siaoe,” Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde, xli. (1899) p. 379.

Ch. Hose and W. McDougall, “The Relations between Men and Animals in Sarawak,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxi. (1901) p. 208.

W. G. Aston, Shinto (London, 1905). pp. 56 sq.

A. C. Kruijt, “Eenige ethnografische aanteekeningen omtrent de Toboengkoe en de Tomori,” Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap, xliv. (1900) p. 222.

E. Thurston, “Deformity and Mutilation,” Madras Government Museum, Bulletin, vol. iv. No. 3 (Madras, 1903), pp. 193-196. As to the custom of sacrificing joints of fingers, see my note on Pausanias, viii. 34. 2, vol. iv. pp. 354 sqq. To the evidence there adduced add P. J. de Smet, Western Missions and Missionaries (New York, 1863), p. 135; G. B. Grinnell, Blackfoot Lodge Tales, pp. 194, 258; A. d'Orbigny, L'Homme américain, ii. 24; J. Williams, Narrative of Missionary Enterprises in the South Sea Islands, pp. 470 sq.; J. Mathew, Eaglehawk and Crow (London and Melbourne, 1899), p. 120; A. W. Howitt, Native Tribes of South-East Australia, pp. 746 sq.; L. Degrandpré, Voyage à la côte occidentale d'Afrique (Paris, 1801), ii. 93 sq.; Dudley Kidd, The Essential Kaffir, pp. 203, 262 sq.; G. W. Stow, Native Races of South Africa (London, 1905), pp. 129, 152; Lettres édifiantes et curieuses, Nouvelle Édition, ix. 369, xii. 371; Annales de la Propagation de la Foi, xiii. (1841) p. 20; id., xiv. (1842) pp. 68, 192; id., xvii. (1845) pp. 12, 13; id., xviii. (1846) p. 6; id., xxiii. (1851) p. 314; id., xxxii. (1860) pp. 95 sq.; Indian Antiquary, xxiv. (1895) p. 303; Missions Catholiques, xxix. (1897) p. 90; Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, xxxii. (1900) p. 81. The objects of this mutilation were various. In ancient Athens it was customary to cut off the hand of a suicide and bury it apart from his body (Aeschines, Contra Ctesiph. § 244, p. 193, ed. F. Franke), perhaps to prevent his ghost from attacking the living.

Basil C. Thomson, Savage Island (London, 1902), pp. 92 sq.

E. Thurston, Ethnographic Notes in Southern India (Madras, 1906), p. 390.

J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 ii. 645; K. Haupt, Sagenbuch der Lausitz, ii. 58; Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen, pp. 86 sq.; id., Das festliche Jahr, pp. 77 sq.; Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern, iii. 958 sq.; Sepp, Die Religion der alten Deutschen (Munich, 1890), pp. 67 sq.; W. Müller, Beiträge zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren (Vienna and Olmutz, 1893), pp. 258, 353. The fourth Sunday in Lent is also known as Mid-Lent, because it falls in the middle of Lent, or as Laetare from the first word of the liturgy for that day. In the Roman calendar it is the Sunday of the Rose (Domenica rosae), because on that day the Pope consecrates a golden rose, which he presents to some royal lady. In one German village of Transylvania the Carrying out of Death takes place on Ascension Day. See below, pp. 248 sq.

G. Targioni-Tozzetti, Saggio di novelline, canti ed usanze popolari della Ciociaria (Palermo, 1891), pp. 89-95. At Palermo an effigy of the Carnival (Nannu) was burnt at midnight on Shrove Tuesday 1878. See G. Pitrè, Usi e costumi, credenze e pregiudizi del popolo siciliano, i. 117-119; G. Trede, Das Heidentum in der römischen Kirche, iii. 11, note.

A. de Nino, Usi e costumi abruzzesi, ii. 198-200. The writer omits to mention the date of these celebrations. No doubt it is either Shrove Tuesday or Ash Wednesday. Compare G. Finamore, Credenze, usi e costumi abruzzesi (Palermo, 1890), p. 111. In some parts of Piedmont an effigy of Carnival is burnt on the evening of Shrove Tuesday; in others they set fire to tall poplar trees, which, stript of their branches and surmounted by banners, have been set up the day before in public places. These trees go by the name of Scarli. See G. di Giovanni, Usi, credenze e pregiudizi del Canavese (Palermo, 1889), pp. 161, 164 sq. For other accounts of the ceremony of the death of the Carnival, represented either by a puppet or a living person, in Italy and Sicily, see G. Pitrè, Usi e costumi, credenze e pregiudizi del popolo siciliano, i. 96-100; G. Amalfi, Tradizioni ed usi nella Penisola Sorrentina (Palermo, 1890), pp. 40, 42. It has been rightly observed by Pitrè (op. cit. p. 96), that the personification of the Carnival is doubtless the lineal descendant of some mythical personage of remote Greek and Roman antiquity.

R. Wünsch, Das Frühlingsfest der Insel Malta (Leipsic, 1902), pp. 29 sq., quoting Ciantar's supplements to Abelas's Malta illustrata.

J. S. Campion, On Foot in Spain (London, 1879), pp. 291-295.

A. de Nore, Coutumes, mythes et traditions des provinces de France (Paris and Lyons, 1846), pp. 37 sq. The name Caramantran is thought to be compounded of carême entrant, “Lent entering.” It is said that the effigy of Caramantran is sometimes burnt (E. Cortet, Essai sur les fêtes religieuses, Paris, 1867, p. 107).

L. Pineau, Folk-lore du Poitou (Paris, 1892), p. 493.

A. Meyrac, Traditions, légendes et contes des Ardennes (Charleville, 1890), p. 63. According to the writer, the custom of burning an effigy of Shrove Tuesday or the Carnival is pretty general in France.

Ch. Beauquier, Les Mois en Franche-Comté (Paris, 1900), p. 30. In Beauce and Perche the burning or burial of Shrove Tuesday used to be represented in effigy, but the custom has now disappeared. See F. Chapiseau, Le Folk-lore de la Beauce et du Perche (Paris, 1902), i. 320 sq.

J. Lecœur, Esquisses du Bocage Normand (Condé-sur-Noireau, 1883-1887), ii. 148-150.

Madame Octave Feuillet, Quelques années de ma vie5 (Paris, 1895), pp. 59-61.

P. Sébillot, Coutumes populaires de la Haute-Bretagne (Paris, 1886), pp. 227 sq.

A. de Nore, Coutumes, mythes et traditions des Provinces de France, p. 206.

P. Sébillot, Le Folk-lore de France, ii. (Paris, 1905) p. 170.

P. Sébillot, l.c.

J. L. M. Nogues, Les Mœurs d'autrefois en Saintonge et en Aunis (Saintes, 1891), p. 60. As to the trial and condemnation of the Carnival on Ash Wednesday in France, see further Bérenger-Féraud, Superstitions et survivances, iv. 52 sq.

T. F. Thiselton Dyer, British Popular Customs (London, 1876), p. 93.

See above, p. 209.

E. Meier, Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben, p. 371.

J. Haltrich, Zur Volkskunde der Siebenbürger Sachsen (Vienna, 1885), pp. 284 sq.

K. von Leoprechting, Aus dem Lechrain, pp. 162 sqq.; W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus, p. 411.

E. Meier, Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben, p. 374; compare A. Birlinger, Volksthümliches aus Schwaben (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1861-1862), ii. pp. 54 sq., § 71.

E. Meier, op. cit. p. 372.

E. Meier, op. cit. p. 373.

E. Meier, op. cit. pp. 373, 374.

A. Kuhn, Sagen, Gebräuche und Märchen aus Westfalen (Leipsic, 1859), ii. p. 130, § 393.

Folk-lore, vi. (1895) p. 206.

F. J. Wiedemann, Aus dem inneren und äusseren Leben der Ehsten (St. Petersburg, 1876), p. 353.

E. Meier, op. cit. p. 374.

H. Pröhle, Harzbilder (Leipsic, 1855), p. 54.

Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern, iii. 958.

J. Boemus, Omnium gentium mores, leges, et ritus (Paris, 1538), p. 83.

Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern, iii. 958.

J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 ii. 639 sq.; W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus, p. 412.

Sepp, Die Religion der alten Deutschen (Munich, 1876), p. 67.

Fr. Kauffmann, Balder (Strasburg, 1902), p. 283.

Aug. Witzschel, Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen (Vienna, 1878), p. 193.

A. Witzschel, op. cit. p. 199; J. A. E. Köhler, Volksbrauch, Aberglauben, Sagen und andre alte Überlieferungen im Voigtlande (Leipsic, 1867), pp. 171 sq.

Fr. Kauffmann, Balder (Strasburg, 1902), p. 283 note, quoting J. K. Zeumer, Laetare vulgo Todten Sonntag (Jena, 1701), pp. 20 sqq.; J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 ii. 640 sq. The words of the song are given as “So treiben wir den todten auss,” but this must be a mistake for “So treiben wir den Tod hinaus,” as the line is given by P. Drechsler (Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien, i. 66). In the passage quoted the effigy is spoken of as “mortis larva.”

Zacharias Schneider, Leipziger Chronik, iv. 143, cited by K. Schwenk, Die Mythologie der Slaven (Frankfort, 1853), pp. 217 sq., and Fr. Kauffmann, Balder, pp. 284 sq.

P. Drechsler, Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien, i. 65-71. Compare A. Peter, Volksthümliches aus Österreichisch-Schlesien (Troppau, 1865-1867), ii. 281 sq.

F. Tetzner, “Die Tschechen und Mährer in Schlesien,” Globus, lxxviii. (1900) p. 340.

J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 ii. 642.

Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen, pp. 90 sq.

Ibid. p. 91.

W. Müller, Beiträge zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren (Vienna and Olmütz, 1893), pp. 353-355.

J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 ii. 644; K. Haupt, Sagenbuch der Lausitz (Leipsic, 1862-1863), ii. 55; P. Drechsler, Sitte, Branch und Volksglaube in Schlesien, i. 70 sq.

J. Grimm, op. cit. ii. 640, 643; P. Drechsler, op. cit. i. 70. See also above, p. 236.

Th. Vernaleken, Mythen und Bräuche des Volkes in Österreich (Vienna, 1859), pp. 294 sq.; Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen, p. 90.

See above, p. 236.

See above, pp. 234, 235, 236, 237.

Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, Das festliche Jahr (Leipsic, 1863), p. 80.

W. R. S. Ralston, Songs of the Russian People (London, 1872), p. 211.

Ibid. p. 210.

J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 ii. 652; H. Usener, "Italische Mythen," Rheinisches Museum, N.F., xxx. (1875) pp. 191 sq.

G. Pitrè, Spettacoli e feste popolari siciliane (Palermo, 1881), pp. 207 sq., id., Usi e costumi, credenze e pregiudizi del popolo siciliano, i. 107 sq.

Archivio per lo studio delle tradizioni popolari, iv. (1885) pp. 294 sq.

H. Usener, op. cit. p. 193.

Vincenzo Dorsa, La Tradizione greco-latina negli usi e nelle credenze popolari della Calabria citeriore (Cosenza, 1884), pp. 43 sq.

E. Martinengo-Cesaresco, in The Academy, No. 671, March 14, 1885, p. 188.

Laisnel de la Salle, Croyances et légendes du centre de la France (Paris, 1875), i. 43 sq.

J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 ii. 652; H. Usener, “Italische Mythen,” Rheinisches Museum, N.F., xxx. (1875) pp. 191 sq.

E. Hoffmann-Krayer, “Fruchtbarkeitsriten im schweizerischen Volksbrauch,” Schweizerisches Archiv für Volkskunde, xi. (1903) p. 239.

H. von Wlislocki, Volksglaube und religiöser Brauch der Zigeuner (Münster i. W., 1891), pp. 145 sq.

E. Cortet, Essai sur les fêtes religieuses (Paris, 1867), pp. 107 sq.; Laisnel de la Salle, Croyances et légendes du centre de la France, i. 45 sq. A similar custom appears to be observed in Minorca. See Globus, lix. (1891) pp. 279, 280.

A. de Nino, Usi e costumi abruzzesi, ii. 203-205 (Florence, 1881); G. Finamore, Credenze, usi e costumi abruzzesi (Palermo, 1890), pp. 112, 114.

G. Amalfi, Tradizioni ed usi nella Penisola Sorrentina (Palermo, 1890), p. 41.

Lucy E. Broadwood, in Folk-lore, iv. (1893) p. 390.

Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen, pp. 89 sq.; W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus, p. 156. This custom has been already referred to. See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 73 sq.

P. Drechsler, Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien, i. 71 sqq.; Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, Das festliche Jahr, p. 82; Philo vom Walde, Schlesien in Sage und Brauch (Berlin, n.d., preface dated 1883), p. 122.

A. Witzschel, Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen, pp. 192 sq.; compare pp. 297 sqq.

J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 ii. 643 sq.; K. Haupt, Sagenbuch der Lausitz, ii. 54 sq.; W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus, pp. 412 sq.; W. R. S. Ralston, Songs of the Russian People, p. 211.

J. Grimm, op. cit. ii. 644; K. Haupt, op. cit. ii. 55.

J. K. Schuller, Das Todaustragen und der Muorlef, ein Beitrag zur Kunde sächsischer Sitte und Sage in Siebenbürgen (Hermannstadt, 1861), pp. 4 sq. The description of this ceremony by Miss E. Gerard (The Land beyond the Forest, ii. 47-49) is plainly borrowed from Mr. Schuller's little work.

W. Müller, Beiträge zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren (Vienna and Olmütz, 1893), pp. 258 sq.

P. 247.

This is also the view taken of the custom by W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus, p. 419.

Th. Vernaleken, Mythen und Bräuche des Volkes in Österreich, pp. 293 sq.

Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, Das festliche Jahr, p. 82.

Philo vom Walde, Schlesien in Sage und Brauch, p. 122; P. Drechsler, Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien, i. 74.

See above, p. 236.

See above, pp. 239 sq.

See above, p. 236.

Above, p. 246.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 73 sqq.

Above, p. 246, and J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 ii. 644; Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen, pp. 87 sq.

Above, p. 246.

See above, pp. 250 sq.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 45 sqq.

Above, pp. 234, 235, 240, 248, 250; and J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 ii. 643.

Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen, p. 88. Sometimes the effigy of Death (without a tree) is carried round by boys who collect gratuities (J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 ii. 644).

Above, p. 208.

Above, p. 231.

F. J. Wiedemann, Aus dem inneren und äusseren Leben der Ehsten, p. 353; Holzmayer, “Osiliana,” in Verhandlungen der gelehrten Estnischen Gesellschaft zu Dorpat, vii. Heft 2, pp. 10 sq.; W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus, pp. 407 sq.

W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus, pp. 417-421.

Olaus Magnus, De gentium septentrionalium variis conditionibus, xv. 8 sq. In Le Temps, No. 15,669, May 11, 1902, p. 2, there is a description of this ceremony as it used to be performed in Stockholm. The description seems to be borrowed from Olaus Magnus.

J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 ii. 637-639; Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern, iv. 2, pp. 357 sq. See also E. Krause, “Das Sommertags-Fest in Heidelberg,” Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, 1895, p. (145); A. Dieterich, “Sommertag,” Archiv für Religionswissenschaft, viii. (1905) Beiheft, pp. 82 sqq.

Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern, i. 369 sq.

Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern, ii. 259 sq.; F. Panzer, Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie, i. pp. 253-256; K. von Leoprechting, Aus dem Lechrain, pp. 167 sq. A dialogue in verse between representatives of Winter and Summer is spoken at Hartlieb in Silesia, near Breslau. See Zeitschrift des Vereins für Volkskunde, iii. (1893) pp. 226-228.

Th. Vernaleken, Mythen und Bräuche des Völkes in Österreich, pp. 297 sq.

R. Andree, Braunschweiger Volkskunde (Brunswick, 1896), p. 250.

W. Müller, Beiträge zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren, pp. 430-436.

W. Müller, op. cit. p. 259.

J. Train, Historical and Statistical Account of the Isle of Man (Douglas, Isle of Man, 1845), ii. 118-120. It has been suggested that the name Maceboard may be a corruption of May-sports.

Fr. Boas, “The Central Eskimo,” Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology (Washington, 1888), p. 605. The account of this custom given by Captain J. S. Mutch is as follows: “The people take a long rope, the ends of which are tied together. They arrange themselves so that those born during the summer stand close to the water, and those born in the winter stand inland; and then they pull at the rope to see whether summer or winter is the stronger. If winter should win, there will be plenty of food; if summer should win, there will be a bad winter.” See Fr. Boas, “The Eskimo of Baffin Land and Hudson Bay,” Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, xv. (1901) pp. 140 sq. At Memphis in Egypt there were two statues in front of the temple of Hephaestus (Ptah), of which the more northern was popularly called Summer and the more southern Winter. The people worshipped the image of Summer and execrated the image of Winter. It has been suggested that the two statues represented Osiris and Typhon, the good and the bad god. See Herodotus, ii. 121, with the notes of Bähr and Wiedemann.

Relations des Jésuites, 1636, p. 38 (Canadian reprint, Quebec, 1858).

H. Herzog, Schweizerische Volksfeste, Sitten und Gebräuche (Aurau, 1884), pp. 164-166; W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus, pp. 498 sq.

Letter to me of Dr. J. S. Black, dated Lauriston Cottage, Wimbledon Common, 28th May, 1903. In a subsequent letter (dated 9th June, 1903) Dr. Black enclosed some bibliographical references to the custom which were kindly furnished to him by Professor P. Schmiedel of Zurich, who speaks of the effigy as a representative of Winter. It is not expressly so called by H. Herzog and W. Mannhardt. See the preceding note.

W. R. S. Ralston, Songs of the Russian People, p. 221.

W. R. S. Ralston, Songs of the Russian People, p. 241.

W. R. S. Ralston, op. cit. pp. 243 sq.; W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus, p. 414.

W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus, pp. 414 sq.; W. R. S. Ralston, op. cit. p. 244.

W. R. S. Ralston, op. cit. p. 245; W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus, p. 416.

W. Mannhardt, l.c.; W. R. S. Ralston, l.c.

J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 ii. 644.

J. G. von Hahn, Albanesische Studien (Jena, 1854), i. 160.

R. C. Temple, in Indian Antiquary, xi. (1882) pp. 297 sq.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 84 sqq.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 45 sqq.

When the Kurnai of Victoria saw the Aurora Australis, which corresponds to the Northern Streamers of Europe, they exchanged wives for the day and swung the severed hand of a dead man towards it, shouting, “Send it away! do not let it burn us up!” See A. W. Howitt, “On some Australian Beliefs,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xiii. (1884) p. 189; id., Native Tribes of South-East Australia, pp. 276 sq., 430.

See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, i. 242 sq.

Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, pp. 4 sq., 170.

Spencer and Gillen, op. cit. p. 170. For a description of some of these ceremonies see The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, i. 85 sqq.

Lord Avebury, Origin of Civilisation,5 pp. 378 sq.; compare id., Prehistoric Times,5 p. 561.

De Guignes, Voyages à Peking, Manille et l'Île de France, iii. (Paris, 1808) pp. 114 sq.

Above, pp. 156 sq.

B. F. Matthes, Einige Eigenthumlichkeiten in den Festen und Gewohnheiten der Makassaren und Buginesen (Leyden, 1884), p. 1; id., “Over de âdá's of gewoonten der Makassaren en Boegineezen,” Verslagen en Mededeelingen der koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen, Afdeeling Letterkunde, Derde Reeks, Tweede Deel (Amsterdam, 1885), pp. 169 sq.

H. A. Oldfield, Sketches from Nipal (London, 1880), ii. 351.

Spenser St. John, Life in the Forests of the Far East,2 i. 194 sq.

Ch. Brooke, Ten Years in Sarawak, ii. 226 sq.

J. S. G. Gramberg, “De Troeboekvisscherij,” Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde, xxiv. (1887) pp. 314 sq.

E. Petitot, Monographie des Dènè-Dindjiè (Paris, 1876), p. 38. The same ceremony is performed, oddly enough, to procure the death of an enemy.

Hamilton's “Account of the East Indies,” in Pinkerton's Voyages and Travels, viii. 360 sq. In general we are merely told that these Indian devotees swing on hooks in fulfilment of a vow or to obtain some favour of a deity. See Duarte Barbosa, Description of the Coasts of East Africa and Malabar in the beginning of the Sixteenth Century, translated by the Hon. H. E. J. Stanley (Hakluyt Society, London, 1866), pp. 95 sq.; Gaspar Balbi's “Voyage to Pegu,” in Pinkerton's Voyages and Travels, ix. 398; Sonnerat, Voyage aux Indes orientales et à la Chine, i. 244; S. Mateer, The Land of Charity, p. 220; W. W. Hunter, Annals of Rural Bengal,5 p. 463; North Indian Notes and Queries, i. p. 76, § 511.

V. Ball, Jungle Life in India (London, 1880), p. 232.

W. W. Hunter, Annals of Rural Bengal5 (London, 1872), p. 463.

G. W. Leitner, The Languages and Races of Dardistan (Lahore, 1878), p. 12.

Sarat Chandra Mitra, “Notes on two Behari Pastimes,” Journal of the Anthropological Society of Bombay, iii. 95 sq.

H. H. Wilson, “The Religious Festivals of the Hindus,” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, ix. (1848) p. 98. Compare E. T. Dalton, Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal, p. 314; Monier Williams, Religious Life and Thought in India, p. 137; W. Crooke, “The Legends of Krishna,” Folk-lore, xi. (1900) pp. 21 sqq.

The Hymns of the Rigveda, vii. 87. 5 (vol. iii. p. 108 of R. T. H. Griffith's translation, Benares, 1891); H. Oldenberg, Die Religion des Veda, pp. 444 sq.

J. G. Kohl, Die deutsch-russischen Ostseeprovinzen (Dresden and Leipsic, 1841), ii. 268 sqq.

L. v. Schroeder, “Lihgo (Refrain der lettischen Sonnwendlieder),” Mitteilungen der Anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien, xxxii. (1902) pp. 1-11.

S. W. Tromp, “Uit de Salasila van Koetei,” Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië, xxxvii. (1888) pp. 87-89.

J. Perham, “Manangism in Borneo,” Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, No. 19 (Singapore, 1887), pp. 97 sq.; E. H. Gomes, Seventeen Years among the Sea Dyaks of Borneo (London, 1911), pp. 169, 170, 171; H. Ling Roth, The Natives of Sarawak and British North Borneo, i. 279.

C. Bock, The Head-hunters of Borneo (London, 1881), pp. 110-112.

Hyginus, Astronomica, ii. 4, pp. 34 sqq., ed. Bunte; id., Fabulae, 130; Servius and Probus on Virgil, Georg. ii. 389; Festus, s.v. “Oscillantes,” p. 194, ed. C. O. Müller; Athenaeus, xiv. 10, p. 618 e f; Pollux, iv. 55; Hesychius, s.vv. Ἀλῆτις and Αἰώρα; Etymologicum magnum, s.v. Αἰώρα, p. 42. 3; Schol. on Homer, Iliad, xxii. 29. The story of the murder of Icarius is told by a scholiast on Lucian (Dial. meretr. vii. 4) to explain the origin of a different festival (Rheinisches Museum, N.F., xxv. (1870) pp. 557 sqq.; Scholia in Lucianum, ed. H. Rabe, p. 280). As to the swinging festival at Athens see O. Jahn, Archäologische Beiträge, pp. 324 sq.; Daremberg et Saglio, Dictionnaire des antiquités grecques et romaines, s.v. “Aiora”; Miss J. E. Harrison, in Mythology and Monuments of Ancient Athens, by Mrs. Verrall and Miss J. E. Harrison, pp. xxxix. sqq.

Servius on Virgil, Aen. xii. 603: “Et Varro ait: Suspendiosis quibus iusta fieri ius non sit, suspensis oscillis veluti per imitationem mortis parentari.”

Servius on Virgil, Georg. ii. 389; id., on Aen. vi. 741.

Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, pp. 505 sq.

Festus, s.v. “Oscillantes,” p. 194, ed. C. O. Müller. This festival and its origin are also alluded to in a passage of one of the manuscripts of Servius (on Virgil, Georg. ii. 389), which is printed by Lion in his edition of Servius (vol. ii. 254, note), but not by Thilo and Hagen in their large critical edition of the old Virgilian commentator. “In Schol. Bob. p. 256 we are told that there was a reminiscence of the fact that, the bodies of Latinus and Aeneas being undiscoverable, their animae were sought in the air” (G. E. M. Marindin, s.v. “Oscilla,” W. Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities,3 ii. 304).

Hyginus, Fab. 130.

Probus on Virgil, Georg. ii. 385.

Virgil, Georg. ii. 388 sqq.

See above, p. 157.

W. G. Clark, Peloponnesus (London, 1858), p. 274.

J. T. Bent, The Cyclades (London, 1885), p. 5.

J. T. Bent, quoted by Miss J. E. Harrison, Mythology and Monuments of Ancient Athens, p. xliii.

Vincenzo Dorsa, La Tradizione greco-latina negli usi e nelle credenze popolari della Calabria Citeriore (Cosenza, 1884), p. 36. In one village the custom is observed on Ascension Day instead of at Christmas.

Valdés, Los Majos de Cadiz, extract sent to me in the original Spanish by Mr. W. Moss, of 21 Abbey Grove, Bolton, March 23rd, 1907.

E. Doutté, Magie et religion dans l'Afrique du nord (Algiers, 1908), pp. 580 sq.

W. W. Rockhill, “Notes on some of the Laws, Customs, and Superstitions of Korea,” American Anthropologist, iv. (1891) pp. 185 sq.

Pausanias, v. 1. 4.

Pausanias, vi. 20. 9.

Taboo and the Perils of the Soul, pp. 88 sq.

J. L. van Hasselt, “Aanteekeningen aangaande de gewoonten der Papoeas in de Dorebaai, ten opzichte van zwangerschap en geboorte,” Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde, xliii. (1901) p. 566.

J. H. Letteboer, “Eenige aanteekeningen omtrent de gebruiken bij zwangerschap en geboorte onder de Savuneezen,” Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap, xlvi. (1902) p. 45.

Footnotes