Belonging to the same order (Ranunculaceæ) we have two species of Hellebore—the Green Hellebore (Helleborus viridis) and the Stinking Hellebore (H. fœtidus), both found in woods on chalk or limestone during April and May. The former, also known in parts as the Bear's-foot Plate I, Fig. 1), has leaves palmately lobed, consisting of five or seven parts; and the flowers, which are more than an inch across, have spreading green sepals, and small tubular petals which contain nectar that is supposed to be poisonous on account of the small dead flies that are commonly found sticking to it. The Stinking Hellebore, or Setterwort, has evergreen, radical leaves, the lobes of which do not radiate from a common centre; and the flowers, of which there are many on each peduncle, have erect sepals.

The Goldilocks or Wood Ranunculus (Ranunculus auricomus) is a flower very much like the Upright Meadow Buttercup (p. 211), though not nearly so tall, being only from six to ten inches high. It grows chiefly in thickets and copses, and flowers from April to July. Its root is fibrous; the stem erect, slender, and branched; the radical leaves long-stalked, round or kidney-shaped, divided into three, five, or seven lobes; and the stem leaves few, sessile, and palmately divided to the base into very narrow segments. The calyx is downy, consisting of spreading, yellow sepals; and the petals are often partially or entirely wanting. This plant is widely distributed, but is most frequent in the centre and south of England.

The Columbine (Aquilegia vulgaris), also one of the Ranunculaceæ, so well known as a garden flower, grows wild in the thickets and copses of several parts, blooming from May to July. Its branched stem grows to a height of one or two feet; and the leaves are stalked, with three broad, stalked, three-lobed segments. The pretty, drooping flowers are usually over an inch in diameter, of a white, blue, or purple colour, in a loose, leafy panicle. They have five coloured, deciduous sepals; five petals, each with a curved spur that projects below the base of the calyx; numerous stamens; and an ovary of five carpels which ripen into as many follicles.

The Dog Violet (Viola canina—Order Violaceæ) is probably too well known to need description, seeing that it is easily distinguished from the other species of the same genus by the absence of scent and by the presence of running stems. It is, however, very variable, both in its habits and habitats, so much so, indeed, that some botanists regard the varieties as distinct species under the titles of Wood Violet, Dark Wood Violet, Pale Wood Violet, Hill Violet, Bog Violet, &c. These different forms are distinguished by the shape of the leaves, which may be broadly-cordate, narrow-cordate, or lanceolate; and also by the nature of the stem and the form and colour of the spur of the corolla. In some the main stem is flowerless, but flowering stems proceed from the axils of its leaves; in others the main stem is long and branched, bearing flowers. The narrow-leaved and branched varieties occur principally on heaths, while the broad-leaved forms, in which the main stem is flowerless, are found chiefly in woods. The student will do well to compare as many forms as possible as an interesting study in variation.

The flowers have five sepals; and five unequal petals, usually of a bluish-purple colour, the lower one prolonged backward into a blunt spur. Five stamens closely surround the ovary, which is composed of three carpels, but is one-celled.

The mode of the dispersion of the seeds is particularly interesting in this instance. When the seeds are ripe the ovary splits into three valves which spread out till they are at right angles to their former position. Each valve is closely packed with smooth, oval seeds; and, as the carpels dry, their sides, originally convex, become gradually straightened so that they press on the seeds. The result is that the seeds are detached from the placenta, one by one, and suddenly shot out to a distance sometimes exceeding a yard. The whole process may be observed by placing some ripe fruits on a large sheet of paper spread in a warm, airy room.

Another peculiarity of the violet is to be seen in its production of two distinct kinds of flowers. The spring flowers, which we know so well, are conspicuous, and are visited and pollinated by insects, but they produce few or no seeds. In the autumn another kind of flower is formed, inconspicuous ones that often possess no petals, and which do not open. These are fertilised by their own pollen, and produce abundance of seed.

Soon after the appearance of the Dog Violet—usually early in May—we meet with the flowers of the Wood Sorrel or Alleluia (Oxalis Acetosella), a plant which is often included with the Crane's-bills in the order Geraniaceæ, but sometimes placed in a separate small order (Oxalidaceæ) containing only three British species. It is a very pretty little plant, of an acid nature, springing from a creeping rhizome. The leaves are radical, ternate, hairy, and sensitive, folding vertically at night in such a manner that the lower surfaces, containing the stomata, are completely covered, and thus loss by evaporation prevented. The flowers are usually solitary and axillary, and the peduncle has two small bracts about half way up. There are five sepals, united below; five white or pinkish petals; and ten stamens, all united into one bundle, but five shorter than the others. The ovary is five-chambered, and the fruit is a capsule.

Like the Violet, this flower is particularly interesting both as to the nature of its flowers, and to the manner in which it scatters its seeds. It bears two kinds of flowers—the delicate spring flowers just described, which are barren; and the later inconspicuous blooms, without petals, and which do not open, but produce seeds. The latter kind of flower may be seen up to August and September.

When the ovary is ripe it splits longitudinally along five seams, but the seeds remain attached to the placenta. Now, the seed coat is made up of layers, one of the inner of which becomes highly strained as the ripening proceeds, while the outer coat is not so strained. When the seed is quite ripe the cell-walls of the deeper layer swell, thus exerting a pressure on the outer layer, which is at last rent. The edges of the slit formed suddenly roll back, and the seed is violently jerked out through the opening of the capsule immediately in front of it.

In April, and from this month to about the end of July, the Wood Strawberry (Fragaria vesca—order Rosaceæ) is in flower. There is no mistaking this species when in fruit, but at other times the Barren Strawberry (Potentilla Fragariastrum), also called the Strawberry-leaved Cinquefoil, is often confused with it. The latter may be known by the absence of runners.

The chief distinguishing features of the Wood Strawberry are the running stem; ternate leaves, with sessile, hairy, serrate leaflets; hairy, erect peduncles; and white flowers, about half an inch in diameter, on pedicels which droop when in fruit.

In shady woods grows the Sweet Woodruff (Asperula odorata—order Rubiaceæ)—a small, erect and smooth plant, seldom exceeding eight inches in height. The leaves are six to nine in each whorl, lanceolate, with small prickles on the margins. The flowers are white, in terminal panicles, and the fruit is rough with hooked hairs. The herb emits, when dry, a pleasant odour resembling that of new hay.

There are two Periwinkles (order Apocynaceæ), both of which have been introduced into Britain as garden flowers, but have become established as wild flowers in several parts. One of these—the Lesser Periwinkle (Vinca minor)—is moderately common, especially in the West, where it is often seen in thickets and other shady places, flowering during April and May. It has a trailing stem, from one to two feet long, rooting at the nodes; and short, erect, leafy, flowering branches. The leaves are opposite, narrow-elliptical, entire, and quite smooth; and the blue or violet flowers, which are about an inch in diameter, are solitary on short, erect stalks. The calyx is free, and deeply divided into five narrow segments; the corolla has a narrow tube, and five broad, spreading parts; there are five stamens, enclosed in the tube of the corolla; and the carpels are distinct at the base, but connected at the top by the single style.

The other species—the Greater Periwinkle (Vinca major)—is a very similar plant, but its leaves are broader, with minute hairs on the margin; the calyx segments are also hairy at the edges; and the corolla is larger, with a broad tube.

The Tooth-wort (Lathræa squamaria—order Orobanchaceæ) is a peculiar, fleshy, pinkish plant, to be found among decaying vegetable matter or at the roots of the Hazel, Elm and a few other trees. It is partly parasitic, deriving its nourishment from the roots of the trees to which it is attached, or sometimes obtaining its food partly or entirely from decaying leaves and stems. Its upright stem, which reaches a height of from five to ten inches, is covered with tooth-like, hollow scales, and bears a one-sided raceme of purple-brown flowers. This peculiar plant is not only a parasite on trees, but is also a carnivorous species, provided with the means of capturing and digesting very small animals, and a more detailed account of its form and habits will be found in our short chapter devoted especially to carnivorous plants.

The Bugle (Ajuga reptans, of the order Labiatæ), is a very abundant flower in moist woods and pastures, blooming in May and June. It has a short root-stock, generally with creeping runners; and erect, smooth flowering stems from three to twelve inches high. At the base is a tuft of obovate, radical leaves, from one to two inches long, gradually narrowed into the stalk, with wavy margins; and on the stem are shorter leaves, with very short stalks, the upper ones often deeply tinged with blue or purple. The flowers are blue (occasionally pink or white), and are arranged in whorls of from six to ten in the axils of the upper leaves, the whole forming a leafy spike. They have a five-cleft calyx; a corolla with a short, erect, notched, upper lip; and a longer lower lip with three spreading lobes, the middle one of which is broader and notched.

The stamens, of which there are two pairs, project beyond the upper lip of the corolla; and the four nutlets of the fruit are rough and united.

The Yellow Dead Nettle, Weasel-snout, or Archangel (Galeobdolon lutea or Lamium Galeobdolon) of the same order is very much like the White Dead Nettle (p. 102) in habit, but is rather more slender, and less branched. It is not a very common plant, but is abundant in certain localities, forming one of the conspicuous flowers of thickets, copses and shady hedgerows during May and June. Its leaves are opposite, stalked, ovate, acute, and coarsely toothed; and the handsome large yellow flowers are in dense whorls of from six to ten in the axils of the upper leaves. The calyx has five short teeth; and the corolla has a short tube, not much longer than the calyx, and two lips, the upper of which is arched, while the lower is spotted with red, and has three lobes.

Our next example, the lovely Primrose (Primula vulgaris or P. acaulis—order Primulaceæ), which so beautifully bedecks our woods and banks in April and May, is so well known that a description for purposes of identification is quite unnecessary.

There are two distinct forms of the primrose flower, often called the pin-eyed and the thrum-eyed, the two forms growing on different plants. The former has its stamens at a contracted portion of the tube, about half way down, and a style so long that the stigma is visible at the top of the tube. The latter has its stamens at the contracted throat of the tube, while the style is so short that the stigma is half-way down.

These two forms may be termed the long-styled and the short-styled primrose, respectively, and the difference is of great importance, inasmuch as it helps to bring about the cross-fertilisation of the flower.

The principal agents concerned in the transfer of pollen from one flower to another are the wind and insects, but it is evident that the work is done, in the case of the primrose, by insects; for not only do we find that the anthers and the stigma are protected from the wind, being more or less hidden in the tube of the corolla, but the showy corolla, the delicate scent emitted by the flower, and the nectar produced at the base of the tube all combine to encourage nectar-loving insects whose proboscis is long enough to reach the sweets.

While such an insect is sucking the nectar from a short-styled primrose, the base of its proboscis is rubbing pollen from the anthers at the top of the tube, and the removal of the pollen is assisted by the contracted throat of the corolla in this kind of flower. Should that insect then visit a long-styled flower, the base of the proboscis, now dusted with pollen, will transfer some of the pollen cells to the stigma. In the same way pollen will be transferred from the anthers of the long-styled to the short-styled flower, since the stamens and stigma respectively occupy corresponding positions in the tubes of the corollas.

On Plate I (Fig. 3) we represent the Lady's Slipper (Cypripedium Calceolus)—a rare and beautiful orchis found in some of the limestone woods of North England. Its stem is downy and leafy, reaching a height of about one foot. The leaves, of which there are three or four, are oblong and ribbed; and the one or two large flowers are brownish with the exception of the lip, which is yellow and inflated.

Two species of Garlic (order Liliaceæ) are also to be found in woods early in the season. They are both strong-smelling plants with bulbous roots, radical leaves, and flowers arranged in an umbel with membranous spathes. One—the broad-leaved Garlic or Ramsons (Allium ursinum)—is very common, grows to a height of from six to twelve inches, and flowers from April to June. The stem is bluntly triangular and leafless; and the broad, radical leaves are much like those of the Lily of the Valley. The flowers are white, and form a flat umbel with two sharply-pointed bracts at its base.

The second species—the Sand Leek or Sand Garlic (A. Scorodoprasum)—grows to two or three feet, and is found almost exclusively in sandy woods of North England, where it flowers a little later than the Ramsons. The stem-leaves are linear, and form two-edged sheaths; and the flowers, which are reddish-purple, are in a loose umbel. (Plate I, Fig. 4.)

The Star of Bethlehem (Ornithogalum umbellatum) is a pretty flower that was originally introduced for cultivation, but has now become well established as a wild flower in many parts of Britain. It is found chiefly in copses and thickets, especially in the neighbourhood of towns and villages, and flowers in April and May. It has an oval bulb containing an abundance of viscid sap; long narrow, limp, radical leaves; and a flowering stem from six to twelve inches high. The flowers are white, from six to ten in number, arranged in a raceme the lower stalks of which are lengthened in such a manner as to bring all the flowers to a level, thus giving the general appearance of an umbel. There is a membranous bract at the base of each pedicel; and each flower has a perianth of six free, spreading, persistent segments, marked outside with a central, green line, and having a nectary at the base.

The same order includes the well-known Blue-bell or Wild Hyacinth (Hyacinthus nonscriptus or Scilla festalis), which is occasionally confused with the Harebell of the order Campanulaceæ. The leaves of this plant are linear and channelled, and the drooping flowers form a raceme of from six to twelve blooms. The perianth is bell-shaped, composed of six united parts, usually blue, but rarely pink or white. The anthers are yellow, and as with all the plants of this order, the ovary is superior. (See Plate I, Fig. 5.)

In damp woods we often meet with the Hairy Sedge (Carex hirta), which grows from one to two feet high; and in similar situations, the Pendulous Wood Sedge (C. sylvatica)—a tufted species, with a weak, leafy stem, from two to three feet high, and flaccid leaves. The latter has a single terminal, male spikelet, of about an inch long; and slender, drooping female spikelets, of about the same length, on long stalks.

On Plate I, we also represent the Wood Melic Grass (Melica uniflora), a slender, graceful species which may be seen in woods, often in bloom as early as the beginning of May.

VI

THE SPRING-FLOWERING TREES AND SHRUBS OF WOODS, THICKETS, AND HEDGEROWS

Having considered the principal low-growing flowers of the woods, we must now give some attention to the trees and shrubs of the same localities.

This portion of the field-naturalist's work will be found at least as fascinating as the observation of the herbaceous plants, for although the flowers of trees are often small and very inconspicuous, many are really beautiful blossoms, and all present features of more or less interest to the botanist. Moreover, the observations of these flowers will always be coupled with those of the appearance and expansion of the leaves, for while some trees produce their flowers shortly before their leaves, and others after, leaves and flowers often come about the same time, and the period of the year covered by the present chapter—from about March to April or early June—will include the bursting of the leaf-buds and the expansion of the leaves of all our deciduous trees and shrubs. Opportunities should be made at this season to observe not only the parts of the trees just named, but to note all other characters presented by the trees, such as the nature of the trunk and its bark, the mode of branching, the appearance of the young twigs, and the nature of the soil and situation in which each species is found.

Our first example is the Barberry (Berberis vulgaris)—the only British representative of its order (Berberaceæ)—a smooth, pale-green shrub, from four to seven feet high, often seen in woods, thickets, and hedgerows, flowering in May and June. Its branches generally droop at the tips, and have triple spines at the base of each leaf or cluster of leaves. The latter are obovate, sharply toothed or even prickly, and often reduced to a cluster of spines. The flowers are pale yellow, in hanging racemes. Each has several yellow sepals, the outer of which are very small; six petals, in two whorls, with nectaries at their bases; and six stamens. The stamens at first lie on the petals; but they are very sensitive, and when the filaments are touched by an insect as it seeks the nectar at their bases, the stamens immediately spring upward, throwing off their pollen, and often depositing some on the insect's back. It is thus possible that the cross-pollination of the flowers is greatly aided by the insect, especially as it will often happen that the same part of its back which has been touched by the elastic stamen will come in contact with the stigma of another flower.

The Sycamore, also called the Great Maple and the False Plane (Acer pseudo-platanus—order Aceraceæ), although not really a British tree, has probably found a home here for nearly five centuries. It has been named the False Plane on account of its having been mistaken for, and called, the Plane, which tree it somewhat resembles in the form of the leaf, as well as in the character of the smooth, thin bark that peels off, giving the tree a patchy appearance. It should be noted, however, that the leaves of the Plane are arranged alternately, while those of the Sycamore are in opposite pairs; also that the fruits of the former are in pendulous balls while those of the latter are winged, and generally in two parts.

The Sycamore grows to a height of from forty to fifty feet and flowers in May or early June, some time after the appearance of the leaves. The leaves are simple and cut into five lobes, with a palmate venation and irregularly toothed margins. The flowers are small, yellowish green, and produced in graceful, pendulous racemes. Each one is about a quarter of an inch in diameter, with five narrow sepals, five narrower petals, eight stamens, and a two-lobed, flattened, hairy ovary which develops into a pair of 'keys' or samaras, with wings about an inch and a half long.

The Maple (Acer campestre) is a much smaller tree, with a very rugged, corky bark. In woods it often reaches a height of fifteen to twenty feet, though it produces flowers and fruit long before it is fully grown; and it is often seen, more or less trimmed and stunted, among hedgerow shrubs. Its leaves are opposite, two to four inches wide, on slender stalks, palmately veined, and divided to about the middle into five obtuse, entire or crenate lobes. The greenish flowers are much like those of the Sycamore, and appear at the same time, but grow in loose, erect, axillary racemes; and the wings of the fruit always spread horizontally in a straight line. On p. 337 is a photograph of a twig of this tree in fruit.

The Spindle Tree (Euonymus europæus), the only British member of the order Celastraceæ, is a moderately common wood and hedgerow shrub which is usually from four to ten feet high, when untrimmed, bearing yellowish-green flowers during May and June. Its branches are smooth, green and angular; and its leaves are opposite, shortly-stalked, oval, acute, finely toothed, with a shining surface. The flowers are usually from three to five together in loose axillary clusters. They have a small, flat calyx of four short sepals; four spreading petals, about a sixth of an inch long; four stamens, about half the length of the petals; and an ovary of from three to five cells embedded in the fleshy disc. The fruits are very pretty, and often form a conspicuous feature of the hedgerow during late summer. They are lobed capsules which open at the angles, exposing the bright orange mace that encloses the seeds.

Several of the prettiest of our trees and shrubs belong to the order Rosaceæ, and among these we may name the Dwarf Cherry, Bird Cherry, Gean, Sloe, Bullace, Hawthorn, Wild Pear, Crab Apple, Service Tree, White Beam Tree, and Mountain Ash. The first of these, known variously as the Wild Cherry, Dwarf Cherry, and Red Cherry (Prunus Cerasus), grows from four to eight feet high, and bears white flowers, in almost sessile umbels, during May and early June. Its bark is of a reddish colour, and numerous suckers arise from its root. The leaves are oval-oblong, smooth, firm, and nearly erect; and the fruit is round, juicy, and red. Although in the wild state the fruit is very acid, this is the tree from which our sweet, cultivated cherries have been derived. In order to distinguish this from other similar species, it should be noted that the tube of the calyx is not contracted at its mouth.

The Bird Cherry (P. Padus) is found principally in North England, where it is moderately common in parts. It is larger than the last, often reaching a height of fifteen feet. Its leaves are narrow, somewhat egg-shaped, smooth, with a doubly-serrate margin. The flowers, which appear in May or June, are white, and arranged in pendulous racemes; and the fruit is oval, almost black, and bitter.

Another wild cherry, generally known as the Gean (P. Avium), is still larger, sometimes reaching a height of thirty feet, and is not uncommon in woods and hedges. The bark is smooth; the leaves abruptly pointed, soft, drooping, and downy beneath; and the beautiful white flowers are in almost sessile umbels. The calyx-tube of this species is contracted at the mouth, and the fruit is either red or black, heart-shaped, and bitter. The leaves turn to a deep red colour in the autumn.

Among the earliest flowers of Spring are the white blossoms of the Sloe or Blackthorn (Prunus spinosa), which appear in March and April, some time before the leaves. The shrub grows from four to eight feet high, has a blackish bark, and numerous branches, the smallest of which terminate in hard, rigid thorns. The leaves are ovate, finely-toothed, smooth, stalked, with small, free stipules. The flowers are small, shortly-stalked, with a free, deciduous calyx of five lobes; five spreading petals; from fifteen to twenty stamens; and an ovary which ripens to an almost black, juicy, acrid drupe, about half an inch in diameter, containing a hard stone, and covered with a bluish bloom. This shrub is very common in thickets and hedgerows.

The Bullace (Prunus insititia), sometimes regarded as a variety of P. spinosa, is a very similar bush, growing in similar situations, and flowering at the same time; but its bark is brown, and the branches less spiny. Its leaves, also, are downy beneath; and the flowers, which appear at the same time as the leaves, are in pairs, on downy stalks. The fruit is about double the size of that of the last species, either dark or yellow in colour, less acrid, and drooping.

The above two species are the origins of the damsons and plums of our fruit gardens.

The May or Hawthorn (Cratægus Oxyacantha) is so well known that there would be no necessity to describe it, were it not for the fact that, being so familiar, its distinguishing characters are liable to be overlooked. It is a much-branched shrub, with many of the branches modified into protective spines. The leaves are simple, smooth, deeply-lobed and obtuse, have deciduous stipules, and appear before the flowers. The flowers are generally white, sweetly-scented, and arranged in corymbs. There are five sepals and five petals, and the numerous stamens have pink anthers producing brown pollen. The carpels, one to three in number, are enclosed in the calyx-tube; and the fruit is a bright red pome with a bony core.

The Wild Pear (Pyrus communis) is occasionally met with in woods and hedgerows, where its white flowers may be seen in April or May. The leaves of this tree are simple, elliptical, and serrate; and the smaller branches often terminate in a spine. The flowers are about an inch in diameter, and arranged in corymbs. They have distinct styles—a feature which serves to distinguish the blossom from that of the Wild Apple; and the fruit, which tapers towards the base, is a five-chambered, woody pome, with a horny core. Two varieties of this species occur, one with the base of the fruit conical, and the other with the base rounded.

The Crab Apple (P. Malus) is very similar in general appearance, but has no spines; and the flowers, which are in sessile umbels, are white, with delicate shades of pink. The styles, also, are united below; and the fruit is globular, yellow or reddish, concave at the insertion of the stalk, very acid, and five-chambered. This tree is common in hedgerows as well as in woods, and flowers during May or early June.

In the woods and hedges of South England we commonly meet with the Service Tree (P. torminalis)—a small tree with downy twigs, and smooth leaves with from six to ten triangular, serrate lobes. Its flowers are small, white, and arranged in compound cymes. They bloom in April and May; and in the autumn their place is occupied by small, green fruits, spotted with brown, with a two-chambered, brittle core.

The White Beam (P. aria) is a small tree, commonly found on the outskirts of woods on chalky or limestone soils, which might be confused with the last species. It has large, irregularly-lobed leaves, white and downy beneath, with serrate edges. The general form of the leaf is egg-shaped, while that of the Service Tree is cordate. The corymbs of white flowers bloom in April; and the fruit, though much like that of P. torminalis, is spotted with red. There are no less than four varieties of this tree, distinguished mainly by the forms of the leaves, the serration of their edges, and the number of lateral veins.

We have yet another representative of the Rose order in the Mountain Ash, Rowan, or Fowler's Service Tree (P. Aucuparia), which is common in mountainous woods, and supplies an edible fruit. It is a very graceful and beautiful tree, with a smooth greyish bark; and pinnate leaves with from thirteen to seventeen serrate leaflets, downy on the under side. The flowers are small, of a creamy white colour, in large corymbs. They bloom in May and June; and later in the year their place is occupied by the scarlet globular fruits, with a yellow pulp, enclosing from two to four chambers.

The Black Currant (Ribes nigrum), of the order Grossulariaceæ, or sometimes included in the Saxifragaceæ, is sometimes found wild in moist woods, flowering in April or May. It is well known as a garden shrub, and may be easily recognised by the characteristic odour emitted from its stems and leaves when bruised. In some northern woods the Red Currant (R. rubrum) is also found wild.

The Wayfaring Tree or Mealy Guelder Rose (Viburnum Lantana—order Caprifoliaceæ) is moderately common in the woods and hedges of dry districts, especially on calcareous soils. It grows from ten to twenty feet high, and flowers during May and June. Its young shoots are covered with star-like hairs, which give them a characteristic mealy or downy appearance. The leaves are simple, elliptical-cordate, serrate, without stipules, and are downy beneath. The flowers are small, white, perfect, and arranged in terminal cymes. In late summer the tree is rendered conspicuous by its flattened berries, which become scarlet as they ripen and afterwards turn black. A photograph of a twig in fruit is given on p. 338.

The Ash Tree (Fraxinus excelsior—order Oleaceæ) is easily recognised at a distance, either in summer or winter, by the graceful curves of the lower branches, which droop, and then bend upward at their extremities; also, on a closer inspection, by the light ashy colour of the smooth bark of the twigs, and the large, black, triangular, terminal buds. The leaves are pinnate, with from nine to seventeen oblong-lanceolate, sessile, serrate leaflets. The flowers appear before the leaves in April and May, in dense clusters. They have no perianth: some consist only of an ovary, some only of two dark purple stamens, while others are perfect flowers with both ovary and stamens. Some trees have male blossoms only, and therefore produce no fruit; others bear dense tufts of pendulous, winged fruits which are ripe in October (p. 336), but often remain on the tree till the following spring. The wing of the fruit is slightly twisted, and thus, when the fruit is detached, it falls with a slow, spinning motion that allows it to be carried some distance by the wind, reaching the ground with its seed-end downwards. The seed does not germinate until the second spring. A variety of the Ash occurs with simple leaves.

Very early in the Spring—February to April—we may often see the Spurge Laurel (Daphne Laureola) in flower in woods and copses. This is an erect, smooth shrub, from two to four feet high, with a few erect branches bearing at their summits crowded clusters of thick, glossy, narrow, evergreen leaves. Its flowers, of a yellowish green colour, are in drooping, axillary clusters among the leaves. They have a tubular, inferior perianth, with four spreading lobes; eight stamens inserted in the top of the tube; and a free ovary of one cell, containing a single ovule. The perianth falls early; and the ovary afterwards becomes a berry-like fruit with a single stone.

Another similar shrub, known as the Mezereon (Daphne Mezereum), is found in similar situations, and flowers at the same time, but it may be known by its deciduous leaves, and by its pale red flowers arranged in threes on the side of the stem. These two species are the only British representatives of the order Thymelaceæ.

Two species of Elm are common in our woods and hedgerows. The small-leaved or Common Elm (Ulmus campestris), and the Wych Elm (U. montana). Both are distinguished by their thick, furrowed, corky bark; and their rough oval-cordate leaves with unequal sides. They are often placed in the same order (Urticaceæ) as the well-known Stinging Nettles, but some authorities form a distinct order for these two species alone, under the name of Ulmaceæ.

The Common Elm is not indigenous, but was introduced into our country by the Romans. It is, however, one of our commonest trees, and is especially abundant in the South. The midrib of the leaf is covered below with irritating, glandular hairs, somewhat resembling those of nettles in structure and function; and the stipules are deciduous, falling early in the season. The flowers are perfect, appearing before the leaves in March and April, and are in small, dense clusters, principally on the topmost branches. Each flower has a little, bell-shaped, persistent perianth; a superior ovary with two styles; and four or five stamens with black anthers. The fruits are very thin oval samaras with the seeds above the centre, but they seldom ripen in our country. They are produced in such abundance that the ground is often almost completely covered with them when they fall. Botanists recognise several varieties of this species, but these differ so slightly from one another that they are barely distinguishable. The Common Elm throws off a large number of suckers from its roots, often producing a dense undergrowth round its bole.

The Wych Elm is a native of our country, and is also very common, but it occurs principally in the woods of the North. It is very similar in general appearance to the last species, which it also resembles in having several barely distinguishable varieties; but it generally attains a much greater girth, and does not throw off such an abundance of suckers from its roots. Its twigs are downy; and the leaves, which are larger than those of U. campestris, are irregularly doubly serrate, with hairs on the prominent ribs of the under side, and are arranged in two straight rows, one on each side of the twig. The flowers are very similar to those of the Common Elm; and the fruit is a broad oblong or almost round samara, with the seed in the centre. Both species are pollinated by the wind; and, as is the case with wind-pollinated flowers generally, the stamens protrude well out of the flower, and produce abundance of pollen.

Four of our forest trees belong to the order Cupuliferæ; these are the Oak, Beech, Hornbeam and Hazel. The first of them—the Oak (Quercus Robur)—is easily recognised in the winter by its deeply-furrowed, corky bark, its zigzag, spreading branches, and the clusters of oval buds at the tips of the twigs. In summer it may be known at once by the oval, sinuate leaves with blunt lobes. The flowers of the Oak appear with the leaves in April or May; they are imperfect, but both male and female blossoms appear on the same tree. The former are in slender, drooping, interrupted catkins; and each flower has ten stamens. The latter are in clusters of a few only, and each separate flower is enclosed in a cupule of overlapping scales. The ovary has three cells, and contains six ovules; but, as a rule, only one ovule of each flower is fertilised. Sometimes, however, two, three, or more of the ovules become fertilised, thus producing an acorn which will give rise to as many separate seedling trees. At times we meet with an Oak nearly every acorn of which contains two or more ovules. This tree is remarkable for the number of insects which feed on its leaves, and also for the number of different species of gall-flies which produce galls on its leaves and stems. Two well-marked varieties occur: one—pedunculata—with sessile leaves and long flower stalks; and the other—sessiliflora—with stalked leaves and short flower-stalks.

The Beech (Fagus sylvatica) is readily recognised during winter and early spring by its smooth, thin, olive-grey bark, and its long tapering, pointed, brown buds. The expanding buds have already been mentioned (p. 44) as of special interest as regards the fan-like folding of the young leaves, and the arrangement for preventing undue loss of moisture while the epidermis is as yet very thin and permeable. The leaves of this tree are ovate, smooth and glossy, with strongly-marked parallel veins branching from the midrib. When young they are very silky, but later the fine, silky hairs are seen only on the slightly-toothed margin, and even these disappear as the season advances. The flowers are imperfect, and appear in April or early May. The staminate catkins are of a dark purple-brown colour, rounded and pendulous, with from eight to forty slender stamens having exposed, yellow anthers. The pistillate flowers are grouped in little clusters of from two to four, each one having three stigmas, and being surrounded by a four-lobed prickly cupule which afterwards forms a closed case. The fruits are three-cornered nuts, enclosed in the hardened cupules which split longitudinally, when ripe, into four valves that are lined with soft, silky hairs.

The Hornbeam (Carpinus Betulus) is a much smaller tree, more or less abundant in the damp, clayey woods of the South. Its bark is smooth or slightly furrowed, of a light greyish colour, and its leaves are elliptical-ovate, with a doubly-serrate margin and acute point. The arrangement of the principal veins is the same as that of the Beech, and the young leaves are similarly plaited in the bud, but the expanded leaves are broader at the base than those of the Beech, are rougher, and are permanently hairy on the under surface. As with the Beech, the leaves assume very pleasing tints in the autumn, turning first yellow, and then through shades of orange to brown; and, in sheltered woods, many of them remain on the tree throughout the winter. The flowers appear in May and early June, and are imperfect, male and female flowers being in separate catkins, but on the same tree. The staminate catkins are pendulous and leafy, each flower having oval, acute bracts, and from three to twelve stamens with forked filaments and hairy anthers. The pistillate flowers are in erect catkins and are arranged in pairs. Their outer bracts are shed early, but the inner bracts or bracteoles, which are three-lobed, grow very large as the fruits ripen, at which time, also, the whole catkin becomes pendulous. Each flower has a two-chambered ovary, and two styles; but only one cell develops, and thus the fruits, each with only one seed, lie on the bases of the leafy bracteoles which aid in their dispersion by the wind.

Our last example of the Cupuliferæ is the well-known Hazel (Corylus Avellana), which is generally found in trimmed hedges and among the undergrowth of woods. Its bark on the trunk and larger branches is grey; but brown, hairy, and dotted with glands, on the young shoots. The leaves are roundish, slightly cordate and unsymmetrical, with a sharp apex and an irregularly-serrate edge; and, when young, are longitudinally plaited in the bud. The flowers appear before the leaves, and are mature in March or early April, but the early stages of the catkins may be observed on the tree throughout the winter, and even in the preceding autumn. The staminate catkins are pendulous, from one to two inches in length when in full bloom, and are commonly known to country children as 'lambs-tails.' They are of a bright yellow colour, and each flower has from four to eight stamens, with hairy anthers that produce abundance of pollen. The pistillate catkins are small, oval, and sessile, hardly to be distinguished from the foliage buds until they protrude their bright crimson stigmas. The minute flowers are enclosed in overlapping bracts which afterwards form the leafy cupules of the large woody nuts; and each one has a two-celled ovary and two styles.

Our forest trees include three representatives of the order Betulaceæ—the Common Birch, the Dwarf Birch, and the Alder. The first of these, the Common Birch, Silver Birch, or Lady of the Woods (Betula alba), is at once recognised by its smooth, silver-white bark, which peels off in horizontal strips; its copper-brown branches; and its very slender, drooping twigs. The leaves are small, rhomboid or triangular, with an irregularly doubly-serrate margin, a sharp apex, and veins very prominent on the under side. They are also provided with long stalks which, together with the slender character of the weeping twigs, allow them to be moved by the slightest breeze. The male and female flowers are in separate catkins, the former of which may be seen on the tree throughout the winter, but do not bloom until April or May. Both are at first erect, but the staminate catkins droop as they mature, and shed abundance of yellow pollen. The flowers have three-lobed, deciduous, scale-like bracts; the male ones consist of two stamens with forked filaments; and the females of a flattened, two-celled ovary. The female catkins droop as they ripen, each one producing a large number of minute, one-seeded and broadly-winged fruits which are easily dispersed by the wind. Two varieties of this tree occur, one with the leaves and twigs covered with downy hairs, and the other with leaves of an oval-cordate form.

The Dwarf Birch (B. nana) is a mere shrub, seldom exceeding two feet in height, and is to be found only in some of the mountainous districts of Scotland. It has rounded, crenate leaves, with short stalks; and the wings of the fruit are very narrow.

The Alder (Alnus glutinosa) is common in wet woods, and especially along the banks of streams in wooded valleys. Some of the mountain streams of the West of England, Wales, and Scotland, are bordered with almost continuous lines of Alder for miles together. This tree has a very dark grey bark, and the young branches are more or less triangular in form. The leaves are round, with a wedge-shaped base, and are green on both sides. They have very short stalks, are very blunt, and have a wavy, serrate margin. When very young they are hairy and sticky to the touch; hence the specific name of glutinosa. The catkins appear before the leaves, and are mature in March or April. The staminate catkins are pendulous, and much like those of the Birch; but the flowers have red scales and four stamens. The pistillate catkins are short and erect, and each flower has a fleshy scale within a reddish-brown, woody bract. The fruits are shed in the autumn, but the thickened woody bracts of the female catkin remain on the tree till, and even after, the flowers of the following spring are in bloom.

Coming now to the order Salicaceæ, we have to deal with the Poplars, of which we have several species, all more or less common, and largely planted in cultivated ground. Our first example is the White Poplar (Populus alba), a large tree frequently seen in abundance in most woods. It has a smooth, grey bark, spreading branches, downy shoots and buds, and it throws off many suckers from its roots. The leaves are roundish, approaching a heart-shape, except those of the young shoots, which are divided more or less deeply into five lobes; and they are covered below by a white cottony down. The flowers are imperfect, and the male and female catkins, produced on different trees, are mature in March or April. The male catkins are three or four inches long, and each flower has from six to ten stamens, with red anthers. The female catkins are much shorter, and its flowers have divided stigmas, with long, narrow, yellow segments arranged like a cross. The ovaries ripen into capsules which split open in July, setting free seeds which are provided with cottony filaments; and the seeds often fall in such abundance as to almost completely cover the ground beneath the tree.

The Grey Poplar (P. canescens) grows in similar situations, and flowers at the same time. Its leaves are roundish, with a waved and toothed margin, and are covered beneath with a slight coating of grey down. Those of the youngest shoots are more or less lobed. In this species the two stigmas are purple, wedge-shaped, and divided into from two to four lobes.

A third species—the Aspen (P. tremula) receives its specific name from the tremulous movements of its leaves, which swing with a rotary movement when disturbed even by the slightest breeze. This characteristic is common, to a greater or lesser degree, to all the species of this genus, and is due to the peculiar nature of the leafstalks, which are long, and flattened in a plane at right angles to that of the blade of the leaf. The Aspen has a grey bark, spreading branches, and downy shoots. The leaves are nearly round, with a sharp point and a serrate margin. When young they are downy above and beneath, but become smooth later. The catkins are very dense, and the flowers of the female tree have two divided stigmas.

The Black Poplar (P. nigra) and the Lombardy Poplar (P. fastigiata), though very common, are not natives of this country. The former is a large, spreading tree, and the latter is readily distinguished by its tall, pyramidal form, with all its branches directed upward. Although these two trees are so very unlike in general appearance, yet they resemble one another so closely in the form of the leaves and the character of the flowers that they are sometimes regarded as two varieties of the same species. In both the leaves are very variable in form, being either triangular, rhombic, or nearly circular, with rounded teeth. Both have smooth shoots, and sticky buds; and their catkins are not so dense as in the other members of the genus. The leaves also are smooth on both surfaces except when young, at which stage they are slightly downy beneath. The male catkins are two or three inches long, of a deep red colour; and, since they appear before the leaves, are very conspicuous. The female catkins are much shorter and erect, and the ripe capsular fruits burst in June, setting free seeds which are covered with a cottony down. P. nigra has a furrowed grey bark, rendered still more irregular by prominent swellings, and it rarely produces suckers. P. fastigiata, on the other hand, often produces numerous suckers, and its trunk generally has a rough, furrowed, and twisted appearance. It is interesting to note that the female of the latter does not occur in our country. The tree was introduced by means of suckers, and it appears certain that suckers of the male tree only were brought over for this purpose.

We conclude this chapter by a brief description of the two native conifers of our woods—the Scotch Fir or Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris) and the Yew (Taxus baccata). The former is very well known, for while its real home is the elevated parts of the North, it has been planted more or less in most southern districts; and it is readily distinguished from other forest trees by its general form, as well as by the nature of its leaves, and by its 'cones.' It should be noted, however, that several similar species, which may be confused with the Scots Pine, have been introduced into our country, but descriptions of these can hardly be included here.