[1] For all locations mentioned see maps accompanying the text or Appendix C.

[2] The Cashibos of the Pachitea are the tribe for whom the Piros besought Herndon to produce “some great and infectious disease” which could be carried up the river and let loose amongst them (Herndon, Exploration of the Valley of the Amazon, Washington. 1854, Vol. 1, p. 196). This would-be artfulness suggests itself as something of a match against the cunning of the Cashibos whom rumor reports to imitate the sounds of the forest animals with such skill as to betray into their hands the hunters of other tribes (see von Tschudi, Travels in Peru During the Years 1838-1842, translated from the German by Thomasina Ross, New York, 1849, p. 404).

[3] The early chronicles contain several references to Antisuyu and the Antis. Garcilaso de la Vega’s description of the Inca conquests in Antisuyu are well known (Royal Commentaries of the Yncas, Book 4, Chapters 16 and 17, Hakluyt Soc. Publs., 1st Ser., No. 41, 1869 and Book 7, Chapters 13 and 14, No. 45, 1871). Salcamayhua who also chronicles these conquests relates a legend concerning the tribute payers of the eastern valleys. On one occasion, he says, three hundred Antis came laden with gold from Opatari. Their arrival at Cuzco was coincident with a killing frost that ruined all the crops of the basin whence the three hundred fortunates were ordered with their gold to the top of the high hill of Pachatucsa (Pachatusun) and there buried with it (An Account of the Antiquities of Peru, Hakluyt Soc. Publs., 1st Ser., No. 48, 1873).

[4] Notice of a Journey to the Northward and also to the Northeastward of Cuzco. Royal Geog. Soc. Journ., Vol. 6, 1836, pp. 174-186.

[5] Walle states (Le Pérou Economique, Paris, 1907, p. 297) that the Conibos, a tribe of the Ucayali, make annual correrias or raids during the months of July, August, and September, that is during the season of low water. Over seven hundred canoes are said to participate and the captives secured are sold to rubber exploiters, who, indeed, frequently aid in the organization of the raids.

[6] Distances are not taken from the map but from the trail.

[7] Compare with Raimondi’s description of Quiches on the left bank of the Marañon at an elevation of 9,885 feet (3,013 m.): “the few small springs scarcely suffice for the little patches of alfalfa and other sowings have to depend on the precarious rains.... Every drop of water is carefully guarded and from each spring a series of well-like basins descending in staircase fashion make the most of the scant supply.” (El Departamento de Ancachs, Lima, 1873.)

[8] Daily Cons. and Trade Report, June 10, 1914, No. 135, and Commerce Reports, March 20, 1916, No. 66.

[9] Reference to the figures in this chapter will show great variation in the level of the timber line depending upon insolation as controlled by slope exposure and upon moisture directly as controlled largely by exposure to winds. In some places these controls counteract each other; in other places they promote each other’s effects. The topographic and climatic cross-sections and regional diagrams elsewhere in this book also emphasize the patchiness of much of the woodland and scrub, some noteworthy examples occurring in the chapter on the Eastern Andes. Two of the most remarkable cases are the patch of woodland at 14,500 feet (4,420 m.) just under the hanging glacier of Soiroccocha, and the other the quenigo scrub on the lava plateau above Chuquibamba at 13,000 feet (3,960 m.). The strong compression of climatic zones in the Urubamba Valley below Santa Ana brings into sharp contrast the grassy ridge slopes facing the sun and the forested slopes that have a high proportion of shade. 54 represents the general distribution but the details are far more complicated. See also Figs. 53A and 53B. (See Coropuna Quadrangle.)

[10] Commenting on the excellence of the cacao of the montaña of the Urubamba von Tschudi remarked (op. cit., p. 37) that the long land transport prevented its use in Lima where the product on the market is that imported from Guayaquil.

[11] The inadequacy of the labor supply was a serious obstacle in the early days as well as now. In the documents pertaining to the “Obispados y Audiencia del Cuzco” (Vol. 11, p. 349 of the “Juicio de Limites entre el Perú y Bolivia, Prueba Peruana presentada al Gobierno de la República Argentina por Victor M. Maurtua,” Barcelona, 1900) we find the report that the natives of the curacy of Ollantaytambo who came down from the hills to Huadquiña to hear mass were detained and compelled to give a day’s service on the valley plantations under pain of chastisement.

[12] The Spanish occupation of the eastern valleys was early and extensive. Immediately after the capture of the young Inca Tupac Amaru and the final subjugation of the province of Vilcapampa colonists started the cultivation of coca and cane. Development of the main Urubamba Valley and tributary valleys proceeded at a good rate: so also did their troubles. Baltasar de Ocampo writing in 1610 (Account of the Province of Vilcapampa, Hakluyt Soc. Publs., Ser. 2, Vol. 22, 1907, pp. 203-247) relates the occurrence of a general uprising of the negroes employed on the sugar plantations of the region. But the peace and prosperity of every place on the eastern frontier was unstable and quite generally the later eighteenth and earlier nineteenth centuries saw a retreat of the border of civilization. The native rebellion of the mid-eighteenth century in the montaña of Chanchamayo caused entire abandonment of a previously flourishing area. When Raimondi wrote in 1885 (La Montaña de Chanchamayo, Lima, 1885) some of the ancient hacienda sites were still occupied by savages. In the Paucartambo valleys, settlement began by the end of the sixteenth century and at the beginning of the nineteenth before their complete desolation by the savages they were highly prosperous. Paucartambo town, itself, once important for its commerce in coca is now in a sadly decadent condition.

[13] Notice of a Journey to the Northward and also to the Eastward of Cuzco, and among the Chunchos Indians, in July, 1835. Journ. Royal Geog. Soc., Vol. 6, 1836, pp. 174-186.

[14] Bol. Soc. Geog. de Lima, Vol. 8, 1898, p. 45.

[15] Marcoy who traveled in Peru in the middle of the last century was greatly impressed by the sympathetic changes of aspect and topography and vegetation in the eastern valleys. He thus describes a sudden change of scene in the Occobamba valley: “... the trees had disappeared, the birds had taken wing, and great sandy spaces, covered with the latest deposits of the river, alternated with stretches of yellow grass and masses of rock half-buried in the ground.” (Travels in South America, translated by Elihu Rich, 2 vols. New York, 1875, Vol. 1, p. 326.)

[16] According to the latest information (August, 1916) of the Bolivia Railway Co., trains are running from Oruro to Buen Retiro, 35 km. from Cochabamba. Thence connection with Cochabamba is made by a tram-line operated by the Electric Light and Power Co. of that city. The Bulletin of the Pan-American Union for July, 1916, also reports the proposed introduction of an automobile service for conveyance of freight and passengers.

[17] During his travels Raimondi collected many instances of the isolation and conservatism of the plateau Indian: thus there is the village of Pampacolca near Coropuna, whose inhabitants until recently carried their idols of clay to the slopes of the great white mountain and worshiped them there with the ritual of Inca days (El Perú, Lima, 1874, Vol. 1).

[18] Raimondi (op. cit., p. 109) has a characteristic description of the “Camino del Peñon” in the department of La Libertad: “... the ground seems to disappear from one’s feet; one is standing on an elevated balcony looking down more than 6,000 feet to the valley ... the road which descends the steep scarp is a masterpiece.”

[19] Figs. 67 and 68 are from Bol. de Minas del Perú, 1906, No. 37, pp. 82 and 84 respectively.

[20] The Boletín de Minas del Peru, No. 34, 1905, contains a graphic representation of the régime of the Rio Chili at Arequipa for the years 1901-1905.

[21] Hann (Handbook of Climatology, translated by R. De C. Ward, New York, 1903) indicates a contributory cause in the upwelling of cold water along the coast caused by the steady westerly drift of the equatorial current.

[22] This is the elevation obtained by the Peruvian Expedition. Raimondi’s figure (1,832 m.) is higher.

[23] According to Ward’s observations the base of the cloud belt averages between 2,000 and 3,000 feet above sea level (Climatic Notes Made During a Voyage Around South America, Journ. of School Geogr., Vol. 2, 1898). On the south Peruvian coast, specifically at Mollendo, Middendorf found the cloud belt beginning about 1,000 feet and extending upwards to elevations of 3,000 to 4,000 feet. At Lima the clouds descend to lower levels (El Clima de Lima, Bol. Soc. Geogr. de Lima, Vol. 15, 1904). In the third edition of his Süd und Mittelamerika (Leipzig and Vienna, 1914) Sievers says that at Lima in the winter the cloud on the coast does not exceed an elevation of 450 m. (1,500 feet) while on the hills it lies at elevations between 300 and 700 m. (1,000 and 2,300 feet).

[24] In most of the coast towns the ford or ferry is an important institution and the chimbadores or baleadores as they are called are expert at their trade: they know the régime of the rivers to a nicety. Several settlements owe their origin to the exigencies of transportation, permanent and periodic; thus before the development of its irrigation system Camaná, according to General Miller (Memoirs, London, 1829, Vol. 2, p. 27), was a hamlet of some 30 people who gained their livelihood through ferrying freight and passengers across the Majes River.

[25] A dry pocket in the Huallaga basin between 6° and 7° S. is described by Spruce (Notes of a Botanist on the Amazon and Andes, 2 vols., London, 1908). Tarapoto at an elevation of 1,500 feet above sea level, encircled by hills rising 2,000 to 3,000 feet higher, rarely experiences heavy rain though rain falls frequently on the hills.

[26] Speaking of Cómas situated at the headwaters of a source of the Perene amidst a multitude of quebradas Raimondi (op. cit., p. 109) says it “might properly be called the town of the clouds, for there is not a day during the year, at any rate towards the evening, when the town is not enveloped in a mist sufficient to hide everything from view.”

[27] Observer: E. C. Erdis of the 1912 and 1914-15 Expeditions.

[28] Percentages given because the number of observations varies.

[29] Observer: Señor Valdivia. For location of Santa Lucia see Fig. 66.

[30] Observations began on May 12.

[31] For the first half of the month only; no record for the second half.

[32] Boletín de la Sociedad Geográfica de Lima, Vol. 13, pp. 473-480, Lima, 1903.

[33] Boletín del Cuerpo de Ingenieros de Minas del Perú, No. 34, Lima, 1905, also reproduced in No. 45, 1906.

[34] The record is copied literally without regard to the absurdity of the second and third decimal places.

[35] In the Eastern Cordillera, however, snowstorms may be more serious. Prior to the construction of the Urubamba Valley Road by the Peruvian government the three main routes to the Santa Ana portion of the valley proceeded via the passes of Salcantay, Panticalla, and Yanahuara respectively. Frequently all are completely snow-blocked and fatalities are by no means unknown. In 1864 for instance nine persons succumbed on the Yanahuara pass (Raimondi, op. cit., p. 109).

[36] Boletín de la Sociedad Geográfica de Lima, Vol. 27, 1911; Vol. 28, 1912.

[37] Boletín del Cuerpo de Ingenieros de Minas del Perú, No. 65, 1908.

[38] This figure is approximate: some days’ records were missing from the first three months of the year and the total was estimated on a proportional basis.

[39] Christoval de Molina, The Fables and Rites of the Yncas, Hakluyt Soc. Publs., 1st Ser., No. 48, 1873.

[40] See Meteorologische Zeitschrift, Vol. 5, p. 195, 1888. Also cited by J. Hann in Handbuch der Climatologie, Vol. 2, Stuttgart, 1897; W. Sievers, Süd und Mittelamerika, Leipzig and Vienna, 1914, p. 334.

[41] The Physiography of the Central Andes, Am. Journ. Sci., Vol. 40, 1909, pp. 197-217 and 373-402.

[42] Results of an Expedition to the Central Andes, Bull. Am. Geog. Soc., Vol. 46, 1914. Figs. 28 and 29.

[43] The Physiography of the Central Andes, by Isaiah Bowman; Am. Journ. Sci., Vol. 28, 1909, pp. 197-217 and 373-402. See especially, ibid., Fig. 11, p. 216.

[44] Travels Amongst the Great Andes of the Equator, 1892.

[45] Geografía y Geología del Ecuador, 1892.

[46] Das Hochgebirge der Republik Ecuador, Vol. 2, 2 Ost-Cordillera, 1902, p. 162.

[47] Contributions to the Geology of British East Africa; Pt. 1, The Glacial Geology of Mount Kenia, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., Vol. 50, 1894, p. 523.

[48] See especially A. Penck (Penck and Brückner), Die Alpen im Eiszeitalter, 1909, Vol. 1, p. 6, and I. C. Russell, Glaciers of Mount Rainier, 18th Ann. Rep’t, U. S. Geol. Surv., 1890-97, Sect. 2, pp. 384-385.

[49] Die Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta und die Sierra de Perijá, Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin, Vol. 23, 1888, pp. 1-158.

[50] For a list of the fossils that form the basis of the age determinations in this chapter see Appendix B.

[51] Eastern Bolivia and the Gran Chaco, Proc. Royal Geogr. Soc., Vol. 3, 1881, pp. 401-420.

[52] The Physiography of the Central Andes, Am. Journ. Sci., Vol. 28, 1909, p. 395.

[53] See paper by H. S. Palmer, my assistant on the Expedition to the Central Andes, 1913, entitled: Geological Notes on the Andes of Northwestern Argentina, Am. Journ. Sci., Vol. 38, 1914, pp. 309-330.

[54] The best photograph of this condition which I have yet seen is in W. Sievers, Südund Mittelamerika, second ed., 1914, Plate 15, p. 358.

[55] Paschinger, Die Schneegrenze in verschiedenen Klimaten. Peter. Mitt. Erganz’heft, Nr. 173. 1912, pp. 92-93.

[56] Hann, Handbook of Climatology, Part 1, trans. by Ward, 1903, p. 232.

[57] S. I. Bailey, Peruvian Meteorology, 1888-1890. Ann. Astron. Observ. of Harvard Coll., Vol. 39, Pt. I, 1899, pp. 1-3.

[58] F. E. Matthes, Glacial Sculpture of the Bighorn Mountains, Wyoming, Twentieth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv., 1899-1900, Pt. 2, p. 181.

[59] Idem, p. 190.

[60] W. H. Hobbs, Characteristics of Existing Glaciers, 1911, p. 22.

[61] Op. cit., p. 286. Reference on p. 190.

[62] Corrosion of Gravity Streams with Application of the Ice Flood Hypothesis, Journ. and Proc. of the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, Vol. 43, 1909, p. 286.

[63] G. K. Gilbert, Systematic Asymmetry of Crest Lines in the High Sierra of California. Jour. Geol., Vol. 12, 1904, p. 582.

[64] Op. cit., p. 300; reference on p. 582.

[65] Op. cit., p. 300; see pp. 579-588 and Fig. 8.

[66] The observation at Camaná checks very closely with a Peruvian observation the value of which is S. 16° 37′ 00″.