We have here examples of many of the above forms, viz. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10, 12, 14, 16; sufficient to shew Chaucer's general conformity with his French models.

§ 107. But a very superficial examination of Chaucer's verse soon shews that he continually sets aside the rigid rule of the Old French prosody that regulated the position of the medial pause. His study of Italian soon shewed him a better way; for there is a great tendency to monotony in the French mode. Dante frequently includes three accents in the former part of his line, which gives much greater freedom to the verse. Thus l. 14 of the Divina Commedia is as follows:—

Consequently, we must allow the bar denoting the caesura to shift its position to a later place in the line, as in A 3; though we may still use Dr. Schipper's number, as above, to denote the general type of the line. That is, A 3 becomes:—

But this is not the only variety; for the mark denoting the caesura is actually inserted in the Ellesmere MS. with much care, and is seldom misplaced. This shews that some lines are divided much more unequally; so that, in fact, the former portion of the line may contain one accent only, or it may contain four; in addition to the above instances in which it contains two or three. I give examples from the Cant. Tales, Group A:—

In some places the Ellesmere MS. marks two pauses in a line, but we need only consider one of them as constituting the true caesura. Thus, in A 923, there is a mark after been and another after duchesse; the latter may be considered as subsidiary.

The occurrence of initial portions of a line containing one accent or four is comparatively rare; but the inclusion of three accents is very common.

§ 108. The addition of a weak syllable at the end of a line is easily explained. It is because, at this point, the poet is FREE; that is, the pause that naturally occurs there enables him to insert an additional syllable with ease. Shakespeare did not hesitate even to add two syllables there, if he was so minded; as in Rich. III. iii. 6. 9:—'Untainted, unexamin'd, free, at liberty.'

For a like reason, the medial pause likewise gives him freedom, and enables an additional syllable to be inserted with comparative ease. We may believe that, in old times, when poetry was recited by minstrels to large assemblies, the enunciation of it was slow and deliberate, and the pauses were longer than when we now read it to a friend or to ourselves. The importance attached to suffixes denoting inflexions tends to prove this. The minstrel's first business was to be understood. Many speakers speak too fast, and make too short pauses, till experience teaches them better.

Hence there is no need to elide a vowel at the caesura; it must therefore be sounded clearly. In A 2, the final -e in March-e should be fully pronounced.

The fact is made much clearer by observing such instances as the following, all from the Cant. Tales, Group B:—

In the same way, the inflexional final -e should be fully sounded in Group B, l. 102:—

So also in B 1178:—

Similar examples abound. Thus we should fully pronounce length-e, B 8; declar-e, B 1672; loud-e, B 1803; thought-e, B 1852; fynd-e, B 3112; raft-e, B 3288; hadd-e, B 3309; biraft-e, B 3404; son-e, B 3413; son-e, B 3593; shet-te, B 3615; wend-e, B 3637.

Notice some examples where the caesura necessarily preserves a final -e from elision, as in B 3989; where tal-e occurs before al. So also ensamp-le in B 3281. Similar instances are rather numerous.

§ 109. The student who has followed the explanation of Chaucer's scansion up to this point is now in a position to understand the whole mystery of additional syllables in other positions. According to the usual method of cutting up lines into 'feet,' such additional syllables make the line seem awkward; whereas, if properly handled, they are very acceptable.

Thus the line B 3385 used to be cut up after the following fashion—Which that | my fa | der in his | prosper | itee; and the third foot was called trisyllabic. Yet the truth is, that the syllable -der in fader really belongs to the former part of the line (for we cannot pause after fa-), and therefore belongs to the 'second foot'; and it would have been better to cut up the line accordingly. But the whole system of chopping up into imaginary equal lengths is inefficient and clumsy; and we have only to adopt a natural accentuation. Thus, in B 3368 (just below), the final -y in many causes no real difficulty, though it adds a syllable to the line:—

So again, in B 3105, the final -es in ell-es is easily sounded:—

Compare Sir Thopas, B 2097:—

The poet's chief business, in such a case, is to see to it, that the syllable thus inserted shall be a light one, in order to prevent the line from becoming clogged. Chaucer is very particular about this; and we shall find that he almost invariably employs, in such a position, such light syllables as these; viz. -e before a consonant, and -ed, -el, -en, -er, -es, often before a vowel. This is a matter which requires a good ear and skilful care; which he certainly possessed. Even at the caesura, it will be found that he usually inserts only light syllables of this character, and the effect is extremely good. A beautiful example occurs in A 2144:—

We may also compare B 1659:—

Also D 334:—

§ 110. We have now to consider the possibility, that Chaucer sometimes dropped the initial syllable of the latter part of a line, after the caesura; a licence of which Lydgate availed himself to a painful extent. It is clear that his ear disliked it; yet there seem to be just a few cases that cannot fairly be explained away, the MSS. being sadly unanimous. It is better to learn the truth than to suppress what we should ourselves dislike. One example occurs in E 1682:—

The two worst MSS. alter doon to don-e, which is impossible. The rest agree.

Another occurs in B 2141:—

Four MSS. have a tag after the k in Mark; hence I have printed Mark-e. But I fear it can hardly be justified.

Lines B 3384, 3535 are unsatisfactory. Line E 2240, which is obviously incomplete, is easily mended.

§ 111. Accentuation. The above sections explain most of the more difficult points in the scansion of Chaucer, and should enable the student to scan most of the lines. But it is necessary to add a few words as regards his system of accentuation, elision, contraction, and other noteworthy points.

Accent. Most words of native origin are to be accented as in modern English; as fáder, wrýting, hólier, plówman, úpright, arýsen, almíghty, misháp. In words like séemlièste, oútrydère, the secondary accent was stronger than at present, especially when the final -e was sounded.

But many compound words, and some others, have a variable accent, being also used with an accent on a later syllable than in modern English; as, answére, forhéed, upríght, manhóod, windówe, gladnésse, goddésse, wrytíng, bodý. This usage is frequent, and must always be borne in mind.

Words of French origin commonly have their accent on a later syllable than at present; as victórie, honóur, pitée, vertú, mirácle, natúre, manére, contrárie, ìmpossíble, àcceptáble, dèceyváble; and even advócat, dèsiróus. Such accents are usually due to the etymology; cf. Lat. uertútem, natúra.

But as the English method inclined towards throwing the accent further back, such words were peculiarly liable to receive an English accent; hence we also find hónour, pítee, vértu, náture, mánere; and, in general, the English habit has so prevailed in modern speech, that the original accentuation of these words has been lost. It must evidently be restored, for the purpose of reading Chaucer aright.

This change of accent even affected the number of syllables. Thus manérë is trisyllabic, but mánere is dissyllabic. In the latter case the scribes frequently write maner; but are not consistent in this. Hence the fact has to be remembered.

Words now ending in -ion end, in Chaucer, in -i-òun, which is dissyllabic, with a secondary accent on -oun. Cases in which the suffix -ioun is melted, as it were, into one syllable, are very rare; however, we find condícion for condici-oun in B 99; and religioun in G 427 is really relígion. As this agrees with the modern method, it is readily understood.

§ 112. Elision. The general rules for elision and the slurring of light syllables are given above, in § 67. For examples of elision of final -e, see droght', A 2; couth', A 14; nyn', A 24; áventur', A 25; tym', A 35; Alisaundr', A 51; Gernad', A 56; nóbl', A 60; mek', A 69; lat', A 77; whyt', A 90; long', A 93; sitt', A 94; Iust', A 96; purtréy', A 96; coud', A 106^[76].

We must here particularly note the article the, which is very often elided before a word beginning with a vowel or mute h. Hence the scribes frequently write theffect for the effect, tharray, thonour for the honóur, and so on. Even if they write the effect as two words, we must often read them as one. In one case, we even find the thus treated before an aspirated h, as in th'harneys, A 2896; however, harneys is, after all, of French origin.

Much more curious is the similar treatment of the pronoun thee; as in thalighte for thee alighte, B 1660. Also, of the pronoun me; as in dó m'endyte, G 32; see M' in the Glossary, p. 157.

Ne is usually elided; cf. nis, nam, nat, nin, nof, &c., in the Glossary; but not in A 631, 3110.

Even unaccented o can be elided; in fact, it is very common in the case of the word to; so that the scribes often write tabyde for to abyde, and the like. This vowel is easily run on to another, as in Italian poetry, without counting as a syllable; as in So estátly^[77], A 281; cf. Placébo answérde, E 1520.

§ 113. The vowel i blends so easily with a following vowel that we feel no surprise at finding fúrial used, practically, as a dissyllable (F 448); merídionàl treated as if it had but four syllables (F 263); and spéciallỳ as if it had but three (A 15). A similar slurring is easily perceived with regard to the o in ámorouslỳ (E 1680) and the u in náturellỳ (B 298). The reader of English poetry must be quite familiar with similar usages. Vál-er-yán, instead of Valérian, in G 350, is a little forced. In many cases of difficulty, the accent is marked in the Glossary.

§ 114. Suppression of syllables. We find, not only in Chaucer, but elsewhere, that light or very weak syllables do not always count for the scansion; so that, whilst, on the one hand, we can read Cáunterbùry as four syllables, with a secondary accent on u (as in A 27), there is no difficulty in pronouncing it, as many do, as if it were Cáunterb'rỳ, with the secondary accent on the y (as in A 16, A 22)^[78]. It seems hardly necessary to enlarge upon this part of the subject; it is sufficient to say that mere counting of syllables will not explain the scansion of English poetry. Accent reigns supreme, and the strong syllables overpower the weak ones, even to the extent of suppressing them altogether.

A few common words may be noted, in which the final -e is usually suppressed, and often not written. Such are hire, here, her; oure, youre, myne, thyne; swiche, whiche, eche; were; here, there; have, hadde; wolde, sholde (less frequently); and some others. Even here accent still plays its part. If here, her, is emphatic, as at the end of a line, it is dissyllabic; see Here in the Glossary. If hadde is emphatic, meaning 'he possessed,' it is usually dissyllabic; we even find had-dë he (A 298, 386).

Thise (dhiiz) is written as the pl. of this; but is always monosyllabic. Similarly, the Ellesmere MS. usually has hise (hiiz) as the plural of the possessive pronoun his; but I have altered this to his, except in the prose pieces. The pl. of som is written some and somme, but is usually monosyllabic (sum).

A good example of the power of accent is in the phrase At thát tym', A 102; where tymë becomes enclitic, and loses its accent and its final -e.

In the endings -ed, -el, -en, -er, -es, as has been already noted, the e may be suppressed, when the final -l, -n, -r practically become vocalic.

But observe, that the e is also dropped, not unfrequently, even in -est, -eth; hence seyst for seyest, and the like. This requires care, because the final -eth is usually written in full, though seldom sounded. In A 1641, her-eth is dissyllabic, and so also is brek-eth in 1642; but in 1643, we have think'th for thinketh, and com'th for cometh. This is the more remarkable, because it is contrary to modern usage; but note the old habit of contracting the third person singular; as in rit for rydeth.

Note the dissyllabic bánish'd in A 1725, with the accent on the first syllable; as contrasted with the trisyllabic desérv-ed in A 1726, with the accent on the second.

§ 115. Contraction. Certain contractions need special notice. This is was pronounced as one word, and often written this. Whether written this or this is, the sense is the same, but the usual pronunciation was this (dhis); see A 1091, E 56, &c.

Whether is usually cut down to whe'r, and is frequently written wher.

Benedicite once occurs as a word of five syllables, where Theseus drawls it out to express his wonder, A 1785. where else (I believe) it is ben'cite, in three syllables only. So also By'r for by our, Book Duch. 544; A godd's halfe, id. 370.

The phrase I ne at the beginning of a line was very rapidly pronounced, almost as I n' (iin); as in I n' saugh, A 764; I n' seye, B 1139; so also Me n' (meen) for Me ne, Pitee, 105 (see the note).

§ 116. For further details, see Ten Brink's work on Chaucers Sprache und Verskunst. It may be as well to say that he has remarkably failed to understand the effect of the caesura, and is much troubled by the occurrence there of extra syllables. Yet this was the necessary result of Chaucer's copying French models.

The explanation is simple. The caesura implies a pause. But elision can only take place where there is NO pause. Hence the caesural pause ALWAYS prevents elision. Hence, also, there is often a redundant syllable here, just as there is at the end of the line. This is a lesson which the student should learn at once; it is easily verified.

I am aware that this lesson is difficult, being opposed to modern ideas; and it will be long before some readers will come to understand that the final e should be kept in the French word seg-e, A 56; in the pp. wonn-e, A 59; in the pp. y-com-e, A 77; in the pl. crull-e, A 81; and so on. It is true that Chaucer, in such cases, usually begins the latter part of the line with a vowel, for the sake of smoothness; but he does not do this invariably; see A 77. Much clearer examples occur in the following (A 84, 130, 184, 198, 224, 343, 491):—

We have noted, however, that Chaucer varied from his French models in making the place of the caesura moveable; and the result was to bring the two portions of each line into closer relationship. Hence he takes great care to make his redundant syllables as light as possible; thus preparing the way for later authors, who came to regard a redundant syllable as a thing to be sparingly used. Moreover, when they did use it, inasmuch as the original value of the caesura was little known, they inserted such a redundant syllable in other positions; in order to avoid monotony.

§ 117. A discussion of the four-accent metre, as in The House of Fame, &c., need not occupy us long. The line is shorter, so that the middle pause is less necessary and of much less account. Hence redundant syllables at the caesura are rare. On the other hand, omission of the first syllable is much commoner. In all other respects the laws are the same.

Two examples of the loss of the initial syllable may suffice.

Examples of medial redundant syllables are these:—