The letters of the alphabet are a, b, ch, e, h, i, k, m, n, o, p, r, t, u, v, x, y, z, tz. The pronunciation is hard; there is no established way of expressing the gender. The names of animated beings, as well as inanimate objects form the plural by the affixes te, eri or ri, tzi or zi, and also with the preposition mea, although there are some exceptions to this rule; for example;—zearate, bee; zearateri, bees; kanax, sheep; kanexeri, sheep; ukubihuame, orator; ukubihuametzi, orators; teatzahuateakame, he who is obedient, of which the plural is teatzahuateakametzi; kurute, crane; kurutzi, cranes; teaxka, scorpion; teaxkate, scorpions. Verbal nouns designating a person who performs an action, are formed by affixing to the verb the syllable kame, or huame;—hukabihuame, advocate (he who pleads); timuacheakame, lover, (he who loves); tichuikame, singer, (he who sings).

CORA GRAMMAR AND LORD'S PRAYER.

Personal pronouns are;—neapue, nea, I; apue, ap, thou; aehpu, aehp, he; iteammo, itean, we; ammo, an, you; aehmo, aehm, they; but in conjugating the following are used:—ne, I; pe or pa, thou; te, we; ze, you; me, they. Of the conjugation of the verb, it is only stated that there is no infinitive, and the following example of the present indicative is given:

There are plural and singular verbs;—tachuite, to give a long thing; taihte, to give long things.

Prepositions are:—hetze, tzahta, in; keme, with, for; apoan, above; tihauze, before. The peculiarity of the Muutzicat dialect is the frequent use of the letter r, which is either appended, or placed in the middle of the word at pleasure;—for huihma, they say ruihma; for earit, erarit. The Teakuaeitzicai dialect has many distinct words not used in any of the others, so that at times they are not at all understood by those speaking the other dialects. As a specimen I insert the Lord's Prayer:

Tayaoppa ( Our father ) tahapoa ( heaven ) petehbe ( be ) cherihuaca ( sanctified be ) eiia ( thy ) teaguarira; ( name; ) chemeahaubeni ( come ) tahemi ( to us ) eiia ( thy ) chianaca ( world ) cheaguasteni ( done be ) eiia ( thy ) jevira ( will ) iye ( as ) chianakatapoan ( earth ) tup up ( as ) tahapoa. ( heaven. ) Ta ( Our ) hamuit ( bread ) huima ( always ) tahetze ( us by ) rujeve ( wanting ) ihic ( to-day ) ta ( us ) taa; ( give; ) huatauniraca ( forgive ) ta ( our ) xanacat ( sin ) tetup ( as ) iteahmo ( we ) tatahuatauni ( we forgive ) titaxanakante ( our debtors ) ta ( us ) vaehre ( help ) teatkai ( that not ) havobereni ( let us fall ) xanakat ( sin ) hetze ( in ) huavaehreaka ( help ) tecai ( that not ) tahemi ( us ) rutahuaja ( reach ) tehai ( not ) eu ( what ) ene ( good ) che ( so ) enhuata ( be it. ) hua.[VIII'-27] (   )

CHAPTER IX.
THE AZTEC AND OTOMÍ LANGUAGES.

Nahua or Aztec, Chichimec, and Toltec languages identical—Anáhuac the aboriginal seat of the Aztec Tongue—The Aztec the oldest language in Anáhuac—Beauty and Richness of the Aztec—Testimony of the Missionaries and early writers in its favor—Specimen From Paredes' Manual—Grammar of the Aztec Language—Aztec Lord's Prayer—The Otomí a Monosyllabic Language of Anáhuac—Relationship claimed with the Chinese and Cherokee—Otomí Grammar—Otomí Lord's Prayer in different Dialects.

The Nahua, Aztec, or Mexican, is the language of Mexican civilization, spoken throughout the greater part of Montezuma's empire, extending from the plateau of Anáhuac, or valley of Mexico, as a centre, eastward to the gulf of Mexico, and along its shores from above Vera Cruz east to the Rio Goatzacoalcos; westward to the Pacific, and upon its border from about the twenty-sixth to the sixteenth parallel, thus forming an irregular but continuous linguistic line from the gulf of California south-east, across the Mexican plateau to the gulf of Mexico, of more than four hundred leagues in extent. Again, it is found on the coast of Salvador, and in the interior of Nicaragua, and we have before seen its connection with the nations of the north. Within the limits of the ancient Mexican empire many other languages besides the Aztec were spoken, as for instance the Otomí, Huastec, Totonac, Zapotec, Miztec, and Tarasco, about twenty in all. It has been claimed by some that the languages of the Toltecs and Chichimecs were different from each other, and from the Aztec; it has even been intimated that traces of a language more ancient than any of these have been found. Pedro de los Rios mentions two words of a song used in the religious ceremonies at Cholula, tulanian hululaez—which he says belong to a language not understood by the Mexicans, and Alexander von Humboldt thinks they may be the remains of some pre-Mexican language.[IX'-1] Others, and among them the Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg, claim greater antiquity for the Maya, affirming that it was spoken in Mexico before the Nahua-speaking people reached that country.

From a careful examination of the early authorities, I can but entertain the opinion that the Toltec, Chichimec, and Aztec languages are one, that the Nahua, or Aztec, is the oldest known language of Anáhuac, and that contrary conclusions arrived at by certain later writers are merely speculative. All of the many different peoples mentioned as aboriginal in ancient Anáhuac are said to have spoken the Aztec, as the Ulmecs, Xicalancas, Tecpanecs, Colhuas, Acolhuas, Nahuas, etc. Ixtlilxochitl, the native Tezcucan historian, relates that by order of the ruler, Techotlalatzin, the Chichimecs dropped their own tongue and adopted that of the Aztecs.[IX'-2]

ORIGINALITY OF THE AZTEC TONGUE.

Furthermore, internal evidence is all in favor of the originality of the Aztec tongue. Throughout the great empire of Anáhuac it was the dominant stock language. Towards the north, as we have seen, sprinklings of it are found in many places, but nowhere does it appear in that direction as a base. Far to the south, in Nicaragua, it is again found as the stock tongue, yet with a dialectic rather than an aboriginal appearance, so that the testimony of language is all in favor of the plateau of Anáhuac having been the primal centre of the Aztec tongue, rather than its having been introduced within any measurable epoch by immigration.

That the Mexican nation did its utmost to extend the language is certain. It was the court language of American civilization, the Latin of medieval and the French of modern times; it was used as the means of holding intercourse with non-Aztec speaking people, also by all ambassadors, and in all official communications; in all newly acquired and conquered territories it was immediately introduced as the official language, and the people were ordered to learn it. It, or its kindred dialects, can be said to have been the common vernacular in the whole interior of Anáhuac, and over a large part of the Aztec plateau, although within these limits other tongues were in vogue. Southward, it again appears along the shores of the Pacific Ocean. It was spoken as far as Guatemala, in the interior of which it appeared in the shape of various dialects more or less corrupted. It can also be traced into Tabasco, and even into Yucatan on the Atlantic coast. It is again encountered in the gulf of Amatique, whence lines extend connecting with the branches of the Aztec in Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua. It is also possible that it may at one time have been used even east of the Mississippi, as will appear from the following statements of Acosta and Sahagun. The latter says that the Apalaches living east of the Mississippi extended their expeditions and colonies far into Mexico, and were proud to show to the first conquerors of their country the great highways on which they traveled. Acosta affirms that the Mexicans called these Apalaches, Tlatuices or mountaineers. Sahagun, speaking of them, says "they are Nahoas, and speak the Mexican language."[IX'-3] This is by no means improbable, as the Aztec is found eastward in the present states of Tamaulipas and Coahuila, and thence the distance to the Mississippi is not so very far.[IX'-4]

THE AZTEC LANGUAGE EAST OF MEXICO.

Of all the languages spoken on the American continent, the Aztec is the most perfect and finished, approaching in this respect the tongues of Europe and Asia, and actually surpassing many of them by its elegance of expression. Although wanting the six consonants, b, d, f, r, g, s, it may still be called full and rich. Of its copiousness the Natural History of Dr Hernandez gives evidence, in which are described twelve hundred different species of Mexican plants, two hundred or more species of birds, and a large number of quadrupeds, reptiles, insects, and metals, each of which is given its proper name in the Mexican language.[IX'-5] Mendieta says that it is not excelled in beauty by the Latin, displaying even more art in its construction, and abounding in tropes and metaphors. Camargo calls it the richest of the whole land, and the purest, being mixed with no foreign barbaric element; Gomara says it is the best, most copious, and most extended in all New Spain; Dávila Padilla, that it is very elegant and graceful, although it contains many metaphors which make it difficult; Lorenzana, that it is very elegant, sweet, and complete; Clavigero, that it is copious, polite, and expressive; Brasseur de Bourbourg, that from the most sublime heights it descends to common things with a sonorousness and richness of expression peculiar only to itself. The missionaries found it ample for their purpose, as in it and without the aid of foreign words they could express all the shades of their dogmas, from the thunderings and anathemas of Sinai to the sublime teachings of the Christ.

Although the Spaniards usually employed the word Dios for God, the Aztecs offered one as fit, their Teotl, and Tloque Nahuaque, signifying invisible supreme being. The many written Aztec sermons, catechisms, and rituals also attest the copiousness of the tongue.[IX'-6] The Mexican, like the Hebrew and French, does not possess superlative nouns, and like the Hebrew and most of the living European languages, it has no comparatives, their place being supplied by certain particles. The Aztec contains more diminutives and augmentatives than the Italian, and is probably richer than any other tongue in the world in verbal nouns and abstracts, there being hardly a verb from which verbal nouns cannot be formed, or a substantive or adjective of which abstracts are not made. It is equally rich in verbs, for every verb is the root from which others of different meanings spring. Agglutination or aggregation is carried to its widest extent, and words of inordinate length are not uncommon. In agglutinating, end-syllables or letters are usually dropped, principally for the sake of euphony. A prayer to the Virgin of Guadalupe, which is to be found in the Promptuario Manual of Paredes, I insert here as a curious specimen of long words:

SPECIMEN OF LONG AZTEC WORDS.

Tlahuemmanaliztli; ic momoztlê tictocemmacazque in Tlâtocacihuapilli Santa Maria de Guadalupe. Tlâtocacihuapillê, Notlazomahuiznantzinê, Santa Mariae, nican mixpantzinco ninomayahui, ninocnotlaza, ihuan mochi Noyollotica, Nanimatica nimitzhohuêcapanilhuia, nimitznomahuiztililia, nimitznotlazotilia, ihuan nimitznotlazocamachitia ipampa in nepapan in motetlaocolilitzin; ic in Tehuâtzin otinechmomacahuililitzino. Auh ocyecenca ipampa ca Tehuâtzin, Notzopelicanantziné, otinechmopiltzintitzino, ihuan, otinechmoconetitzinô. Auh ic ipampa in axcan ihuan yê mochipa nimitznocemmacatzinoa, Notetlaocolicanantzinê, inic in Tehuâtzin nimitznotlazotiliz, ihuan inic áic nimitznoyoltequipaehilhuiz. Auh in Tehuâtzin, nimitznotlátlauhtilia: in ma in nonemian, ihuan in nomiquian xinechmopalchuili, ma xinechmochimalcaltili, ihuan ma in motetlaocolilizcuexantzinco xinechmocalaquili; inic qualli ic ninemiz, ihuan nimiquiz; inic çatepan nimitznomahuizalhuiz, in ompa in Ilhuicac; in ompa in Dios Itlâtocatecpanchantzinco in Gloria. Amen.[IX'-7]

A word of sixteen syllables, the name of a plant, occurs in Hernandez—mihuiittilmoyoiccuitlatonpicixochitl.[IX'-8] Though the Aztecs made verses, no specimens of their poetry have been preserved except in a translated form. One, composed by the great Tezcucan, King Nezahualcoyotl, translated in full in the preceding volume, gives us an exalted idea of the advanced state of the language.[IX'-9]

The Mexican language employs the following letters: a, ç, ch, e, h, i, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, t, tl, tz, u, v, x, y, z. The pronunciation is soft and musical, and free from nasal sound. The a is clear; ch before a vowel is pronounced as in Spanish; but before a consonant, or when a terminal, it differs somewhat; e is clear; h is an aspirate, in general soft, being strong only when it precedes u. No word commences with the letter l; ll is pronounced as in English. The t is sometimes silent, but not when it comes between two l's; tl in the middle of a word is soft, as in Spanish, but as a terminal it is pronounced tle, the e half mute; tz is similar to the Spanish s, but a little stronger; the v is by the women pronounced as in Spanish, but men give it a sound very similar to hu in Spanish; x is soft, like sh in English; z is like s in Spanish, but less hissing.

AGGLUTINATION IN THE AZTEC LANGUAGE.

By compounding, the Mexicans make many long words, some even of sixteen syllables; but there are also some non-compounded words that are very long. Words are compounded by uniting a number of whole words, and not alone by simple juxtaposition, since, with much attention to brevity and euphony, letters and syllables are frequently omitted. For instance;—tlazotli, loved; mahuiztik; honorable, or reverend; teopixqui, priest; tatli, father; no, mine; of which is composed notlazomahuizteopixcatzin, that is to say, my very esteemed father and reverend priest. This also presents an example of the ending tzin, which simply signifies respect. Teopixqui is composed of teotl, God, and pia, to guard. There are two particles which may be appropriately called ligatures, as they serve to unite words in certain cases; they are ca and ti. Kualani, to irritate, to anger; itta, consider, reflect; nikualanicaitta, to observe with anger, angrily.

By reason of these compounded words, the meaning of a whole sentence is often contained in a single word, as;—tlalnepantla, in the middle of the earth, or, situated in the middle; popocatepetl, smoking mountain; atzcaputzalli, ant-hill, or, place where there are many people moving—alluding to a dense population; cuauhnahuac, (Cuernavaca) near to the trees; atlixco, above the water; tepetitlan, above the mountain, etc.

There are several ways of expressing the plural. As a rule, plurals are applied only to animate objects. Inanimate objects seldom change in the plural, as;—ce tetl, one stone; yei tetl, three stones; miec tetl, many stones. In exceptional cases the plural of inanimate objects is expressed by terminals. One of these exceptions is when the object is connected with persons, as;—zoquitl, mud; tizoquime, we are earth; but there are again exceptions to this rule, as for instance;—ilhuicame, the heavens; tepeme, mountains; zitlaltin, stars. Sometimes inanimate things also form the plural by doubling the first syllable;—tetla, place full of stones; tetetla, places full of stones; calli, house; cacalli, houses. These various terminations may be reduced to the following rules. Primitive words have the plural in me, tin, or que, as;—ichcatl, a sheep; ichcame, sheep; zolin, a quail, zoltin, quail; cocoxqui, sick; cocoxque, sick (plural); topile, constable; topileque, constables. Derivatives form the plural as follows: those called reverentials, ending with tzintli, have in the plural tzitzintin. Diminutives, ending in tontli, have in the plural totontin, and diminutives ending in ton and pil, augmentatives in pol, and reverentials in tzin, double the terminal, as;—tlacatzintli, person; tlacatzitzintin, persons; ichcatontli, a lamb; ichcatatontin, lambs; ichcapil, lamb; ichcapipil, lambs; chichiton, a little dog; chichitoton, little dogs; huehuetzin, old man; huehuetzitzin, old men.

Words into whose composition the possessive pronoun enters, whether primitive or derivative, have for the plural van or huan;—noichcahuan, my sheep; noichcatotonhuan, my little sheep. The words tlcatl, man, ciuatl, woman, and those which imply an official or professional position, form the plural simply by leaving off the last letters, as;—mexicatl, plural, mexicá; in which case, however, the ultimate syllable is accented. Some words, to form the plural, double the first syllable, and also use terminals, as;—teotl, God; teteo, gods; zolin, quail; zozoltin, quails; zitli, hare; ziziltin, hares. Telpochtli and ichpochtli, double the syllable po.

Some adjectives have several plurals, as;—miec, much; plural, miectin, miecintin, or miecin. Gender is expressed by adding the words oquichtli or ciuatl, male and female, except in such words as in themselves indicate the gender. A father speaking of his son says, nopiltzin, and a mother of her daughter, noconeuh.

AZTEC GRAMMAR.

There are no regular declensions; in the vocative case, an e is added to the nominative, or words ending in tli or li, change the i into e. Those ending in tzin may change to tze or add an e, but the latter is only used by males. The genitive is denoted by the possessive pronoun or by the juxtaposition of the words, as;—teotl, God; tenahuatilli, emanating; teotenahuatilli, precept of God. The dative is indicated by verbs called applicatives; the accusative, by certain particles which accompany the verb, or by juxtaposition; as;—chihua, to have; tlaxcalli, bread; nitlaxcalchihua, I have bread. The ablative is indicated by certain particles and prepositions. Diminutives are formed by the terminals tontli and ton, as;—chichi, dog; chichiton, small dog; calli, house; cacontli, small house. Augmentatives take the syllable pol. The terminals tla, and la, serve as collectives;—xochitl, flower; xochitla, flower-bed. Words ending with otl are abstracts, as;—qualli, good; qualotl, goodness. Those ending with va (hua) and e indicate possession;—ilhuicatl, heaven; ilhuicahua, master of heaven, (applied to God). Comparatives and superlatives have no particular terminations, but their place is supplied by adverbs, as;—achi, ocachi, etc., which mean 'more.' Pedro is better than Juan, ocachiqualli in Pedro ihuan amo Juan; here the adverb is connected with quallo, good. Words derived from active, neuter, passive, reflective and impersonal verbs, having various significations, terminate in ni, oni, ya, ia, yan, can, yau, ian, tli, li, liztli, oca, ca, o, tl; as;—cochini, he who sleeps; tlaxcalchihuani, he who has bread; motlaloani, he who runs; chihualoni, practicable; neitoniloni, something producing perspiration; notlachiuaya, my instrument; amotlanequia, our will; tlacualoyan, eater; micoayan, place to sleep; itepatiayan, hospital; tlachihualli, created, produced; tetlazotlatiztli, love; nachihualoka, creation.

Personal pronouns are;—nehuatl, nehua, ne, I; tehuatl, tehua, te, thou; yehuatl, yehua, ye, he or somebody; tehuantin, tehua, we; amehuantin, amehuan, you; yehuantin, yehuan, they. Possessives;—no, mine; mo, thine; i, his; to, ours; amo, yours; in or im, theirs; te, belonging to others.

The above-mentioned possessives are used in compounded words, and change the final syllable of the word to which they are joined;—teotl, God; noteuh, my God; huehuetl, old man; amohuehuetcauh, our old man.

The verb has indicative, imperative, optative, and subjunctive moods—present, imperfect, perfect, pluperfect, and future tenses.

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TEMICTIA, TO KILL.

AZTEC IRREGULAR VERBS.

There are but few irregular verbs in the Aztec language and the following are all that Pimentel could find;—ka and mani, to be; icac, to be on foot; onoc, to be lying down; yauh, to go; huallauh and huitz, to come; mazehualti, icnopilti, and ilhuilti, to obtain a benefit.

The following words are always used as affixes:

THE LORD'S PRAYER.

Totatzine ( Our revered father  ) ynilhuicac ( who heaven in ) timoyeztica, ( art, ) mayectenehualo ( be praised ) inmotocatzin, ( thy name, ) mahualauh ( may come ) inmotlatocayotzin ( thy kingdom ) machihualo ( be done ) intlalticpac ( earth above ) inmotlanequilitzin, ( thy will ) inyuhchichihualo ( as is done ) inilhuicac, ( heaven in, ) intotlaxcalmomoztlac ( our bread every day ) totech monequi ( to us is necessary ) maaxcan ( to-day ) xitechmomaquili, ( give us, ) maxitechmetlapopohuili ( forgive us ) intotlatlacol, ( our sins, ) iniuh ( as ) tiquintlapopolhuia ( we forgive ) intechtlatla ( those who ) calhuia, ( us offend, ) macamoxitechmomacahuili ( thou not us lead ) inicamo ( that not ) ipan ( in ) tihuetzizque ( we fall ) inteneyeyecoltiliztli: ( in temptation: ) çanye ( but ) xitechmomaquixtili ( deliver us ) inyhuicpa ( against ) inamoqualli. ( from not good. ) Maiuhmochihua.[IX'-10] (   )

Many comparisons between the Aztec and the tongues of Asia and Europe have been made, and relationship claimed with almost every prominent language, but under analysis all these fancied affinities vanish. Similarities in words, in common with all tongues, are found between the Aztec and others, but at best they can be called only accidental. Still, a few remarkable word-analogies have been noticed, among the chief of which are the following. The Aztec like the Greek and Sanskrit, uses the privative preposition a, which in the Celtic has been changed to an, in Latin to in, or im, and in the German to un;—Greek, athanatos; Aztec, amiquini, immortal. Further, in the perfect tense, and sometimes in the imperfect, o is used in the Aztec, like the Sanskrit a, and the Greek e. But the most remarkable coincidence is the word teotl, which is as near as possible to the Greek Théos. Kingsborough and Mrs Simon see in the Aztec the language of the Jews; Jones that of the ancient Tyrians; Lang, that of the Polynesians. García makes comparisons with the Hebrew, Spanish, Phoenician, Egyptian, Japanese, and German, and for a relationship with these and many others he finds claimants. Until further light is thrown upon American philology, the Aztec must stand alone, as one of the independent languages of the world.[IX'-11]

The Otomí, held to be next to the Aztec the most widely extended language in Mexico, was spoken by a rough and barbarous people who inhabit the mountains encircling the valley of Anáhuac, but more particularly those towards the north-west. Thence it extended into the present state of San Luis Potosí, was spoken throughout Querétaro and the larger part of Guanajuato, and in places in Michoacan, Vera Cruz, and Puebla.[IX'-12] From the Journal and Proceedings of the fourth Provincial Council, held in Mexico in the year 1771, it appears that the language was spoken in four dialects, varying so much that it was only with the greatest difficulty that the several tribes could hold intercourse.[IX'-13] The only dialect of which particular notice has been taken is the Mazahua, spoken in the ancient province of Mazahuacan. Of the others the only specimens are a few Lord's Prayers.

HYPOTHETICAL OTOMÍ AND CHINESE RELATIONSHIP.

The Otomí claims attention in one particular; it is the only true monosyllabic language found in the Pacific States, and this alone has led many to claim relationship between it and the Chinese.

This Chinese relationship has been mainly advocated by Señor Nájera, a native Otomí, who in furtherance of his peculiar views wrote an excellent Otomí grammar, in an appendix to which he gives an extensive comparison between the two idioms. But, taking up the words which he declares to be similar, we are at once struck with important omissions on his part. The first is that he has not at all taken into consideration the difficulty of comparing monosyllabic languages, in which a word frequently has ten or more significations, distinguishable only by pronunciation and accentuation, and at times having scarcely these distinguishing features. Secondly, the words which he adduces to be similar, are wanting in the very essentials that constitute a relationship, for in most instances they are not even similar in sound, a requisite to which more attention ought to be paid in monosyllabic languages than in those which are polysyllabic. The few words that in reality are similar are probably only accidental resemblances, and the question of relationship between the Otomí and Chinese cannot be said to have been established as yet.[IX'-14]

Mr Bringier branches out in another direction in search of a relationship, and fancies he finds it in the Cherokee, basing his whole argument on a hypothetical resemblance of perhaps half a dozen words, which in fact do not resemble each other at all.[IX'-15]

Like other monosyllabic tongues the Otomí is rather difficult to acquire, its pronunciation being rough, guttural, with frequently occurring nasals and aspirates.[IX'-16]

OTOMÍ GRAMMAR.

As before stated, many words having distinct meanings, are distinguished only by various sounds, or intonations of the same vowel; many words even having the same sound and intonations have different meanings. The words of this language are of one or two syllables; a few of them have three. In words compounded of more than one syllable, each syllable preserves its original meaning. The words whether noun or verb, are inflexible. Neither substantive nor adjective nouns have any gender. The same word may be a substantive, adjective, verb, and adverb, as in the following sentence;—na nho nho ye na nho he nho, which means, the goodness of man is good and becomes him well. Nouns have neither declension nor gender, which are expressed either by distinct words, or by ta, or tza, male, and nsu or nxu, female;—tayo, the dog; nxuyo, slut. The particle na has the property of the article and, prefixed to the noun, distinguishes the singular. In the plural, ya affixed, or e prefixed, is substituted. Adjectives are always placed before substantives;—ka ye, holy man. Comparatives are expressed by the words nra, more, and chu, less;—nho, good; nra nho, better. Superlatives are in like manner shown by the word tza, or tze, prefixed, meaning very much, excessively, exceedingly;—tza nho, best; tze ntzo, worst, or very bad. The particle ztzi, or ztzu, prefixed, marks a diminutive;—ztzi hensi, a small paper. In abstract nouns of quality the prefix na is changed into sa;—na nho yeh, a good man; sa nho, that which is good. Personal pronouns are;—nuga, nugaga, nugui, I; gui, ki, me, for me; nugué, nûy, thou; y, hi, to thee, for thee; nunu, he; bi, ba, ki, him, for him, to him; nugahé, nugagahé, nuguihé, we, or us; nuguégúi, nuguehu, nûygúi, nûyhu, you, to you; nuyu, they; ma, mine; ni, thine; na, his.

Verbs are conjugated with the assistance of particles, which designate tense and person. Every tense has three persons, also a singular, and a plural. The plural is always designated by the syllable hé, we; wi, gúi, or hu, you; yu, they. All nouns may also be verbs, for the Otomís, unable to segregate the abstract idea of existence from the thing existing, confound both and have no substantive verb;—nho, good; di nho, I good, or I am good.

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB NEE, I WILL.

OTOMÍ AND MAZAHUA LORD'S PRAYERS.

LORD'S PRAYER.

Ma ( My ) tà ( father ) he ( we ) ni ( thou ) bùy ( house ) mahetsi ( heaven ) da ( call ) ne ( holy ) ansu ( thy ) ni ( name ) huhu ( name ) da ( thy will come   ) ehe ( towards ) ga he ( us ) ni ( thy ) bùy ( house ) da ( thy will ) kha ( do ) ni ( thy ) hnee ( will ) ngù ( as ) gua ( here ) na ( the ) hày ( earth ) te ( as ) ngù ( also ) mahètsi ( heaven ) ma ( the ) hme ( bread ) he ( us ) ta nà ( every ) pa ( day ) rà ( give ) he ( us ) nar ( one ) a pa ( day ) ya ( new ) ha ( and ) puni ( forgive ) he ( us ) ma ( our ) dupatè he ( debts ) tengù ( as ) di ( we ) puni he ( forgive ) u ma ( now ) ndupatè ( debtors ) he ( ours ) ha ( and ) yo ( avoid ) gui ( the ) he ( permit ) he ( us ) ga ( do ) he ( us ) kha ( in ) na tzò ( bad ) cadi ( action ) ma ( but ) na pehe ( save us ) he hin ( no ) nhò. ( good. ) Do ( Thy ) kha. ( will do. )

The grammar of the Mazahua dialect is very nearly the same as that of the Otomí, and I therefore insert the Lord's Prayer only to illustrate the connection between the two languages.

Mi yho me ( Our father ) ki obuihui ( is ) ahezi ( heaven ) tanereho ( sanctified ) ni ( thy ) chuu ( name ) ta ehe ( come ) ni ( thou ) nahmuu ( kingdom ) ta cha ( do ) axoñihomue ( earth ) cho ( ? ) ni ( thy ) nane ( will ) makhe ( as ) anzi ( also ) ocha ( is done ) ahezi. ( heaven. ) Ti yak me ( Give us ) mi bech me ( our bread ) choyazmue, ( every day, ) ti chotkhe ( forgive ) me ( us ) mo ( our ) huezok me ( faults ) makhe anzi ( as also ) tigattotpue ( we forgive ) me mache i ( those who ) zokhegue ( offend ) me ( us ) pêkhecho ( not us ) gueguetme ( must ) tezoxkhemeyo ( lead in ) huezok hi ( sins ) tipe yeziz ( deliver ) one ( us ) macho yoñene ( from ) macho ( all ) tenxi higaho.[IX'-18] ( evil. )

CHAPTER X.
LANGUAGES OF CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN MEXICO.

The Pame and its Dialects—The Meco of Guanajuato and the Sierra Gorda—The Tarasco of Michoacan and its Grammar—The Matlaltzinca and its Grammar—The Ocuiltec—The Miztec and its Dialects—Miztec Grammar—The Amusgo, Chocho, Mazatec, Cuicatec, Chatino, Tlapanec, Chinantec, and Popoluca—The Zapotec and its Grammar—The Mije—Mije Grammar and Lord's Prayer—The Huave of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec—Huave Numerals.

North-eastward of the Otomí, is a language called the Pame, spoken in three distinct dialects; the first in San Luis de la Paz, in the Sierra Gorda; the second, near the city of Maiz, in San Luis Potosí; and the third in Purísima Concepcion de Arnedo, and also in the Sierra Gorda. I have at hand only the Lord's Prayer in three dialects; nor can I find mention of any vocabulary or grammar. It is described as difficult to acquire, principally on account of the many dialectic variations.[X'-1]

PAME AND MECO LORD'S PRAYER.

FIRST DIALECT.

Tata mícagon indis bonigemajá: indis unajá grotztacuz: Quii unibó: Nage eu nitazá, unibó ubonigí: Urroze paricagon uvinguí ambogón bucon gatigí bajir gomór, como icagon gumorbon quipicgo hicnangó: nenanguí nandazó pacunimá: imorgo cabonjá pajanor. Amen Jesus.

SECOND DIALECT.

Caucan xugüenan, que humiju cantau impains, achscalijon gee nigiu yucant gee cumpó. Chaucat gee quimang, ac-gi cumpó acgi cantau impain. Senté caucan senda gunó yucant chiné iguadcatan caucan humunts, ac-gipain caucan hujuadptan á caucan humunts. Y mi negenk do guaik guning cacaa yeket vali ening, ac-ge-bo.

THIRD DIALECT.

Ttattahghuhggg ighegh ddih uhvoh hinh gghih qquihhmissches: ughgnjuhgh ttahghgihh innddisseh Qquihihihh uhggúho uhghg gühihh rrehhino, Ih qquih üghgghihghh wohlluhn ttáh ighschchahh, Assi uhggüghh commo ub vóhnnihghh. Uhnghehddi uhvrá hhvíhn qquihhphpohggühuhh, yhchihh uh vehvéhh ihghgühohgühuhh ih qqih ih chi wchveh ihhumhurhggühuhh uhhohddi nuch hêhôhuág. Assi commo ahpe hpâhhddi ihec âhggühuhh kuhmhûhrûhhg uhonnddi ahphpiggühúhh. Ih qquihngnahghnhêhrrggühuhh phpahagh, Ahnâhssuhqquih huhnhéhh. Mahhsséhh Uihbbráhrhr ihhehggühuhh. Ihghgôhttahhehrêh Ggéhssúhs.

It will be observed that the third dialect displays a most singular combination of letters. It is a manifest absurdity. Pimentel does not mention where he obtained it, nor does he intimate what sounds are produced from this huddling of consonants. I give it more as a curiosity than with the idea that philologists will ever derive any benefit from it.[X'-2]

In the Sierra Gorda and in Guanajuato, another language is mentioned, called the Meco, or Serrano, of which no specimen but a Lord's Prayer exists:

Mataíge gui bu majetzi, qui sundat too, da guê rit tû jû da ne pa quecque ni moc canáni, ne si dac-kaá na moccanzû; tanto na sinfai, tengû, majetzi. Mat tumeje tá, át mapa, rac-je pilla, ne si gi pungagé, mat-oigajé, tengû si didi pumjéé, too dit-tuc-je, nello gijega je gatac-je ratentacion; man-aa juêgaje, gat-tit-jov llaizoonfenni.[X'-3]

Still less is said concerning the languages spoken in the state of Tamaulipas; of them nothing is known but the names, and it cannot be ascertained whether they are correctly classified or not, as no specimens exist. The languages which I find spoken of are the Yuê, Yemé, Olive, Janambre, Pisone, and a general one named Tamaulipeco.[X'-4]

The Tarasco, the principal language of Michoacan, can be placed almost upon an equality with the Aztec, as being copious and well finished. It is particularly sweet-sounding, and on this account has been likened to the Italian; possessing all the letters of the alphabet.

Each syllable usually contains one consonant and one vowel; the letter r is frequent.[X'-5] From the different grammars I compile the following:

TARASCO GRAMMAR.

In the alphabet there is neither f, v, nor l; no words begin with the letters b, d, g, and r; k, has a sound distinct from that of c, being pronounced stronger. The letter s is often intercalated for euphony; it must be inserted between h and i, when a word ends with h, and the next begins with i. At the end of a word it signifies same, or self; hi, I; his, I myself. When a word ends in s and the next begins with h, the letter x is substituted for both. The letter x at the end of a word indicates the plural. Ph is never pronounced like f; the h after p only indicates an aspiration of the vowel which follows:—p-hica. Hati, third person singular of the pronoun used in conjugations, may be converted into ndi. The p immediately following m is converted into b. The r and t next following n are converted into d; and e and q next following n are converted into g. There are three kinds of nouns—rational, irrational, and inanimate. The last two are indeclinable in the singular. The plural of irrational animals is formed simply by the addition of the particle echa. Two other particles are used to express the plural of inanimate things;—uan, and harandeti, many, much. Five words of this species use, however, the particle echa in the plural; uata, mountain; ambocuta, street; ahchiuri, night; tzipaé, morning; hosqua, star.

DECLENSION OF THE WORD FATHER.

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB POMI, TO TOUCH.