CHAPTER IX. CONDUCTORS, STRAINERS, ETC.

When treating of receiving milk, we spake of conductors as difficult to clean. We consider them an abomination in a cheese factory; yet almost every factory uses them. We believe there are some, however, arranged for delivering and receiving milk by driving through one end of the factory. The milk is brought in small cans, out of which it is poured into the weighing-can by hand. The weighing-can is on a truck running on a railway along the sides or ends of the vats, into which the milk is readily emptied by tipping. This does away with both faucets and conductors, and the idea is worthy the attention of all factorymen.

When cranes are used in receiving milk, the outside conductors are not needed, but there are two or three long conductors, inside the factory, used for running the milk from the weighing-can into the vats. Sometimes we see one of these tin tubes ten or fifteen feet long. It is impossible to keep such a thing clean. A peep into this, or shorter ones, will show that they are not kept clean. Take as much pains as the hands may to clean them with a swab on a long stick, they will soon get coated over inside by the milk drying on; and, unless extra pains is taken, they will be lined with a beautiful coating of green and gold! They are used at night, and, unless the weather is very bad—and many pay no attention to the weather—they are allowed to stand over night where used, ready for the next morning. The milk and cream get dried on the inside surface, and nobody has the time, if the disposition, to soak it off. Further, tin conductors will get dents in them. The milk will collect and dry in the angles made by these dents. How, in the name of common sense, can any one get at them to clean them, in a tube ten or even four feet long? It is an impossibility. The milk collects, from day to day, until the conductor is full of foul ferments, through which all the milk of the factory is run and tainted. It is no fault of the cheese-maker, because he can't help it, if he employs a hand constantly on these abominable tubes. He may use a swab with strong ley, or salt and water, or both, and run hot water through the tubes till the patrons begin to come with their milk, but the "damned spots" will not "out." Of course, he will somewhat neutralize their active properties as ferments, but he does not altogether get rid of them. The only way in which he can do it, is to pitch the nasty things out of the window.

If conductors must be used—and their use seems to be a foregone conclusion—let them be made in the form of open spouts. A foot or so next to the head, is all the tube that is needed—and this should be large enough to readily admit the hand for the purpose of washing. The rest should be an open spout, which can be easily and speedily cleaned and scalded. Many owners of factories, however, are too penurious to spend a few dollars in order to get rid of this nuisance of long tin conductors. They would rather lose—or, at least, run the risk of losing—five hundred dollars on the sale of their cheese, than spend five dollars for the purpose of avoiding this fruitful source of taint. If the cheese is poor, the blame can be laid on the cheese-maker; or, if the taint is too manifest in the vat of milk or curd, it can be charged upon the carelessness of the patrons.

There is another source of trouble, which lies entirely with the cheese-maker, or with the hands under him whom he trusts. This is the strainer. In cool weather, perhaps there will be no difficulty, if the strainer is properly washed, scalded and dried each morning after the milk is all in. But in hot weather, especially if the atmosphere is damp and steamy, if a strainer is left over night without rinsing, it is sure to sour. Yet, the strainer, like the conductor, is often left at night just as used, ready for the reception of the next morning's milk. Both are likely to be sour. The milk in the vat is "old," especially next the cream, which acts as an air-tight covering. Now, run hot milk through the sour can, conductor and strainer, into this mess of changed milk, and any one, with even but a modicum of brains, can see what is likely to be the consequence. It will be a batch of sour, leaky cheese.

Where an agitator is used, the trouble of milk souring or tainting beneath an air-tight covering of cream, is obviated. Washing cans, conductors and strainers at night, gets rid of the difficulty from these sources—that is, as far as the can and strainer are concerned, and partially as regards the conductor. A thorough rinsing in cold water, immediately after the last mess is run in, will be found to answer the purpose. It is usually late, and there is no hot water for regular washing and scalding. But a few moments' work will complete the rinsing in cold water, and this will not be found a very hard task for even the jaded hands of a cheese-factory. During all the hot weather, this should be strictly attended to. It will pay in a double sense—it will prevent sourness, and make the can, conductor and strainer easier to wash the next day.

The old-fashioned thermometer is also a source of annoyance, if care is not taken in cleaning it. It will fill up with ferments between the face and back, in an astonishingly short space of time, during hot weather. In short, there is no way of keeping it perfectly clean, except by slipping the thermometer out of the back or case, and carefully washing and scalding it—and in doing this, it is exceedingly liable to get broken. We are therefore glad to notice the introduction of a new thermometer for dairy purposes. It is simply constructed, plain, easy to clean, and no more expensive than the common kind now in use. Those in need of thermometers will find this style much better adapted to their uses. The glass is fastened to a plain plate of metal, the two edges of which are bent forward to give it the requisite stiffness.

Of course, agitators, dippers, rakes, &c., need to be carefully cleaned. But we have before spoken of the importance of the most scrupulous attention to cleanliness throughout, on the part of the cheese-maker as well as of the patron. Cleanliness is an indispensable virtue in all departments of dairying.

CHAPTER X. COLOR.

One would hardly think of associating cheese-making with the fine arts; yet, in what other light can we view the subject of color? It adds nothing to the quality of the cheese, but rather detracts from it. It is expensive and troublesome, and grows more so every year, as the demand for annotto runs up the price and leads to adulteration. But as long as we make cheese for a foreign market, we must adapt our goods to the tastes of that market, whether they be physical or mental. Our home market would, perhaps, not suffer from the omission of color; but the English market demands, to a large extent, highly-colored cheese. The Liverpool market will take a small quantity of pale cheese, but it does not equal more than one-fifth of the demand of the English market. A few factories, which sell exclusively to buyers who supply the Liverpool demand for pale cheese, may safely omit the color; but all which depend on the general market cannot safely do so. The London market specially demands a high color, and it is no less exacting now than it has been heretofore. The cry of buyers generally is, "Keep up the color!" The exceptions to this are few, and are confined to those who have special orders for pale cheese to supply the demand above indicated.

The English consumer acquired his taste for golden-hued cheese before the American make found any considerable market abroad—indeed, before we had much cheese to sell. The first object in coloring seems to have been to give a rich butter color. In this way, cheese was made to appear rich whether it really was so or not. But the shade has been considerably intensified and the English eye is best pleased with the color produced by the use of prime annotto, with which it has become familiar. This may be a prejudice, but it is a comparatively harmless one; and since our customer is willing to pay for it, there seems to be no good reason why it should not be gratified. It is for our interest to please the eye as well as the appetite of so large a buyer of our products as England. She wants about four-fifths of her cheese highly but nicely colored.

The complaint among buyers generally is, that color is too low. In reply to suggestions about the fact, makers often say that they never used more coloring, but it does not produce the desired effect. They have paid a high price for what was supposed to be prime annotto, but it proves to be extensively adulterated, and therefore weak. This is not the complaint of all, but of many. Some have adopted the use of prepared annotto, and find it cheaper and more satisfactory. When prime annotto could readily be had, it was cheaper to buy the basket and prepare it themselves. But now, one poor basket, during a season, imposes a loss greater than the difference in price between the prepared and the unprepared.

There is another evil about the use of poor annotto. It is not only expensive and does not give the desired color, but what color it does give fades out with age, and leaves the cheese with a cloudy, mottled appearance, which is very offensive to the eye of our best customers. Again, where poor annotto is bought in the basket and prepared at the factory, it contains a large amount of sediment, and this sediment, often containing deleterious substances, too frequently gets into the cheese. The liquid is not properly settled and racked off. This affords another argument in favor of buying prepared annotto, which, if properly put up, is free from sediment.

Those who prefer to buy the basket annotto and prepare it themselves, should buy only on the warrant of the dealer that it is what it is recommended to be. The dealer should test a sample of his annotto, before offering it for sale, and know precisely what he is selling. Buyers by thus purchasing only of well-known dealers, who sell upon honor, will discourage rascality. This is the only method we see for keeping the spurious article out of market, and securing satisfactory results in coloring.

We would suggest to those who prepare their own annotto, that they use concentrated ley or potash. By doing so, they will secure just as good a shade as they can by using ley from wood-ashes, and not only save the trouble of bothering with a leach, but secure uniform strength. Two leaches will seldom turn out ley of the same strength. Sometimes it will be strong and satisfactory. But if you happen to get a lot of soft wood ashes in your leach, the ley will be weak, imperfectly dissolve the annotto, and materially injure the liquid.

In fact, it is difficult to get your coloring twice alike by the use of a common leach. But with concentrated ley or potash, the same quantities or proportions of materials, mixed in the same way, will produce the same result. You can therefore keep your color even, and will not be called upon to experiment and change your hand every time you prepare a new batch of annotto. The difference in expense will be trifling, and rather in favor of the use of potash, if time and trouble are counted of any value.

The prepared annotto ought to be kept in a stone jar, as the ley operates injuriously upon wood, and is liable to leave a tub in a leaky condition as the liquid is used out and the tub dries. Where annotto is purchased already prepared, of course it comes in vessels suitable to keep it in; but when prepared at the factory, a receptacle has to be provided, and nothing is better than stone or earthen-ware. In hot weather, the liquid is liable to smell badly from the action of the heat on it. A little salt stirred in will be found useful as a preventive against this.

It is not necessary to discuss at length the question of the effect of coloring on the quality of the cheese. The introduction of a strong alkaline preparation cannot be without some effect; and when that happens to be adulterated with some vile substance, the effect cannot be otherwise than injurious. The annotto itself is generally conceded to be harmless; and the ley is, at most, but a neutralizer of the lactic acid, but the quantity is not sufficient, perhaps, to produce any perceptible result. At all events, color is demanded; annotto, prepared with ley or potash, is the accepted material; so we have only to color with annotto to suit the taste of our customer.

We are assured that nicely colored cheese will bring from a cent to a cent and a half a pound more than the same quality of cheese will bring when pale. Buyers in some instances advise the making of pale cheese because they have a special order for it; but they usually expect to get it a little under the highest market quotations, and factorymen who allow themselves to drop the color on the advice of an interested buyer, because it is easy and costs nothing directly to do so, run the risk of being caught and of losing a great deal more than they can save by omitting the coloring. We never heard of a lot of cheese being condemned because it was too nicely colored; but we frequently hear of complaints and losses because cheese is too pale. The chances are at least four to one in favor of high-colored cheese; and even the fifth chance is not positively against color, though the other four are strongly against lack of color. He who wishes to have the widest range of markets, and to command the best markets, must pay strict attention to color—not only must he color, but color well and evenly.

We have an objection to color, for reasons satisfactory to ourselves; and buyers can have no interest in inducing makers to color their cheese, beyond the fact that it makes it more marketable—and in this, patrons and factorymen have a much greater interest than dealers can have. The market demands a rich, even color, and will not be satisfied without it. We say, therefore, as a matter of dollars and cents—not of taste, choice or convenience—keep up the color.

We will give two recipes for preparing annotto: 1. To five pounds of prime annotto put five gallons of strong ley, made from wood ashes; gradually heat up and dissolve the annotto, care being taken to not scorch it on the bottom of the kettle. Of course thorough stirring is essential. When the annotto is all dissolved, add five pounds of sal soda and five gallons of soft water. Then gently boil the whole for twenty or thirty minutes. This makes about ten gallons of prepared coloring. If boiled away to less, add sufficient ley and soft water, in equal quantities, to make that amount. Some omit the sal soda; but it is generally believed that it not only adds strength to the preparation, but improves the color by giving it more of a rich, buttery hue, instead of a red. The whole, when sufficiently cooled to handle safely, should be set in a tub, with a faucet two or three inches from the bottom, to settle. When settled, it can be drawn off, and is ready for use.

2. Mix in the proportion of five quarts of water to half a pound of concentrated ley, and one pound of prime annotto. First dissolve the ley in the water, by heating and stirring, and then add the annotto, and dissolve it. Boil gently for half an hour. Care, as with the other preparation, should be taken not to burn it. Settle and rack off. Then your liquid is ready for use.

The second recipe is the one most used, and is easiest to prepare, as it avoids the labor, perplexity and risk of making the ley, which may not always be of the desired strength, as the ashes may not be the same. But if ashes are used, hot water is best to leech through them. A quart of salt to ten gallons of preparation will improve its keeping qualities.

CHAPTER XI. RENNET.

An indispensable requisite in making cheese is good rennet. Nothing else will answer the purpose. Different substitutes have from time to time been tried, but all have met with indifferent success, or absolutely failed. Acids will produce coagulation, but they spoil the quality of the cheese. It was once supposed that the gastric juice of the calve's stomach was acid, and produced coagulation by souring. But it has been demonstrated that good curd can be produced from sweet new milk, by the use of rennet, without the development of acid in either the curd or the whey. How or why the principle obtained by soaking the calve's stomach produces coagulation has not yet been discovered. What the principle is, is not even known. It appears to be contained in the gastric juice secreted by the inner membranes of the stomach, and a small quantity of rennet, stirred into a vat of milk, seems to coagulate it in the same manner that milk taken into the calve's stomach is coagulated. We all know the fact that by the use of rennet we can make cheese. Beyond this, we have little knowledge; so far as we are aware, scientific men are just as much in the dark as the cheese-maker.

As the stomach of the calf is bifold, we have seen the mistake frequently made of saving the wrong one. But we presume patrons are generally well informed on this point now, after so many years' experience. Where the stomach is not entirely empty, the presence of curd is a sure guide. Always save the stomach that contains the curd, and no mistake will be made. If the stomach is empty, save the one that has a smooth inside surface. The one that has a rough, honey-comb-like inside surface is worthless for cheese-making, and should, of course, be rejected.

There are three or four ways of preserving the rennet or stomach, for future use. Only two, we believe, are generally practiced in America. In all cases, the rennet is to be turned wrong side out, all its contents being thrown away, and the inner surface carefully cleaned by picking off all hairs and bits of grass, hay or other substance which the calf may have taken into its stomach. But the rennet should never be washed, and great care should be taken not to remove any of the inner membrane of the rennet, as in this membrane resides all its strength. Washing would rinse out the gastric juice, and weaken the rennet; and much washing would render it nearly or quite worthless.

When properly cleaned, the rennet should be thoroughly rubbed with salt, outside and in, turned the right side out, stretched on a crotched stick or on a hoop, and hung up in a cool, dry place, to cure. In private dairies, the farmer's wife, after salting the rennet, sometimes spreads it on an earthen plate and sets it away to dry, frequently turning it on the plate. Rennets dried in this way are nice, but it is too much work to tend to them for a general adoption of this method of drying. Drying on a stick or a hoop is the common way, and answers the purpose very well. The only trouble is to find a place both dry and cool. It is generally conceded, we believe, that heat injures the strength of the rennet. Hence the importance of curing it in a cool place. Freezing is thought by many to add to or develop the strength of the rennet. Be this as it may, old rennets, that have hang up in the dry-house or some other convenient place through the winter, will go much further in cheese-making than new rennets.

Another method of preserving rennets is by packing them into salt. This is quite common, and is practiced by some of our best factories. It is less troublesome than drying them, and is a sure preventive against moths, which are apt to get into dried rennets. By salting them down, there is less trouble to find a cool place in which to keep them during the summer. But care should be taken to use only the purest salt in packing rennets. Salt not fit to salt curd with is not fit to pack rennets in, for when the rennets are used, the salt will be in the liquid and find its way into the mass of curd. Besides, pure salt is much the better preservative, and will keep either meat or rennets sweeter than impure salt.

Some think rennets preserved in this way are not as strong as those that are dried. We do not quite see the philosophy of this, since by packing in salt, none of the virtues of the rennet can escape by evaporation, and must be retained either in the rennet or in the salt. It may be said that the salt injures the strength of the rennet. If so, why does it not prove equally injurious when the rennet is dried? In both methods of preserving, salt is freely used—generally all that the rennet will absorb. A batch of dried rennets may go farther than the same number packed in salt, and vice versa; but this does not prove that the same rennets would not have equal virtues preserved by either method.

The German method of preserving rennets is by blowing them up like a bladder, and drying them. This is the way in which the Bavarian rennets, which reach this country, are preserved. We believe no salt is used. The method is simple, and if it answers the purpose equally well, we see not why it may not be adopted in this country. We understand that the Bavarian rennets give very good satisfaction. But, as we have never used them, nor seen them used, we cannot speak from positive knowledge.

Veal rennets are generally supposed to be better than deacon rennets. Certain it is that the stomach of a calf that never sucked the cow is not worth much in cheese-making. It is both small and weak. It seems to be necessary that the process of digestion should go on for a while, at least, that all the functions of the animal may become active and a full secretion of gastric juice take place. Some are of the opinion that the rennet is best when the calf is from three to five days old, as at that age it is not likely to have taken anything but milk into its stomach, which is best prepared for digesting that kind of food, the first process of which is coagulation. Veal calves are apt to get hold of other food, and the stomach is therefore less exclusively adapted to a milk diet. Hence, it is argued, if the veal rennet is better than the deacon, the stomach of the cow or ox ought to be better than that of the veal calf. Whatever may be the conclusion, we have, and shall probably continue to have, both deacon and veal rennets, both kinds of which have been found to work satisfactorily.

Much seems to depend on the condition of the calf when killed. If it goes too long without food, the stomach gets inflamed and is not only deprived of its strength, but is partially diseased, and, therefore, unfit for cheese-making. This is the condition of most of the rennets taken from calves killed in our larger cities, the calves going without food sometimes two or three days. On the other hand, when the calf has a full stomach, the juices seem to be absorbed in the food, and the rennet is, therefore, weak. The best time for killing the calf appears to be just after the stomach has emptied itself, when the appetite of the calf begins to be sharp and the secretions of gastric juice are copious. This will generally be found from twelve to eighteen hours after eating. If fed at night, it may be killed any time the next forenoon.

CHAPTER XII. PREPARING RENNET.

The process of preparing rennet for use is very simple, and so generally understood that we need not more than give a few hints on the subject. In putting rennets to soak, care should be taken not to allow any tainted ones to get into the batch. When they are packed in salt, it is not difficult to make a selection. If the poor rennet does not smell, it will be pretty likely to be discolored and unhealthful looking, instead of having a whitish, wholesome appearance. All rennets thus discolored should be thrown away as worse than useless—as positively injurious. If the rennets are dried, it may not be so easy to detect the poor ones before putting them to soak. After soaking, their quality will be quite apparent; but much of their injurious effect may be avoided by promptly rejecting them without rubbing. It is generally, and we believe correctly, understood that diseased or tainted rennets produce both huffy and bad-keeping cheese, by the introduction of decayed animal substances. It certainly cannot improve the quality of the cheese to mix with it the broth of carrion.

Clear whey is the common and best liquid for soaking rennets. Water was once and is now sometimes used, but it needs to be very soft and pure, and is improved by boiling. We have never tried water, but it is asserted by those who have used it for soaking rennets that a batch prepared with it will not keep sweet as long as one prepared with whey, but that boiling the water keeps it sweet longer than it will keep if not boiled. We think the purer the whey the better, and therefore prefer that which first separates from the curd after setting. Some are not particular, and some prefer the salt whey that runs from the presses. There is a saving of salt in this, but we think this liquid cannot be as good to introduce into milk as that containing less cheesy and buttery particles. Boiling the whey and skimming it, afterward allowing it to cool and settle, that the sediment may also be excluded, is said to be a great improvement, and we can easily believe this to be true. It is not only free from impurities, but it forms a sharp acid that acts readily upon the rennets and extracts more completely the pepsin, gastric juice, or whatever it may be that coagulates the milk. It is said that quite a saving in rennets can be effected by using scalded whey for soaking them.

Twenty or twenty-five prime rennets put into a half barrel of whey will make a good preparation. It can be made stronger, of course, by the addition of more rennets, or pouring in a less amount of whey; but it is questionable if the entire strength can be extracted by using a less quantity of whey in proportion to the number of rennets. They need to be rubbed at least three times, each time in a new batch of whey. The second time the preparation will be found about as strong as the first. The third rubbing and rinsing may be in fresh whey to be used for soaking a new batch of rennets. We like to have two tubs or jars for soaking the rennets, one for the first and the other for the second rubbing, alternately. After rubbing the second time, put the rennets in a sack made of strainer cloth, to keep them separate, and soak them with the batch intended for the next second rubbing. In this way the strength of the preparation from the batch may be kept equal to that from the first. Rub the third time, and rinse in fresh whey, as before indicated, when the strength will be found pretty completely extracted. If dried rennets are used, it will be necessary to add salt to the whey when the batch is put to soak. Every time new whey is added, more salt will be required. Where the rennets are packed in salt there will usually be salt enough for the first soaking adhering to them; if not, it may be increased in quantity by a few handfuls of that loose in the barrel in which they have been packed. As the rennets will float on the whey, they should be thoroughly stirred up as often as night and morning, and a little salt sprinkled over those left on the top.

We prefer stone jars, both for soaking rennets and to keep the prepared rennet in, because they are so much more easily kept sweet than wooden tubs can be. Of all things, we detest a stinking rennet tub or jar. Frequent scalding, when emptied, is necessary. When the preparation is kept in a tub, it will be advantageous to rub a little salt, each morning, on the sides of the tub left exposed to the air, after setting the milk, by the lowering of the liquid. By all means, do anything and everything that may be necessary to keep the rennet tubs or jars from stinking so badly that the stench will nearly suffocate one on uncovering them. A sweet rennet tub is the evidence of important qualities in a cheese-maker—care and cleanliness.

Of course, there are various ways of managing, as regards quantity, convenience's sake, and so on, but we do not believe the principles involved in the process of selecting and preparing rennets for use, as we have given it, can be violated or neglected without loss in some manner. The importance of properly-prepared rennet, and of keeping it sweet and clean, cannot be too highly estimated. "Bad luck" in cheese-making might not infrequently be traced to the rennet tub; while "good luck" may be as often traced to the same source. Look out for your rennets and take care of your rennet-tubs or jars. They may make or mar your fortune.

CHAPTER XIII. SETTING.

The temperature of 82° to 86° is generally considered the best for setting—the former in hot and the latter in cold weather. This gives an average of 84° for mild weather. Perhaps this point is as good as any for setting. But it is worth bearing in mind that the milk will coagulate sooner, after adding the rennet, at a high than at a low temperature. The same milk will set quicker at 86° than at 82°, and at the points in the vat where the heat is greatest, or the milk cools least by radiation, the curd will become tough and difficult to cut, while other parts of the mass will remain tender and cut easily. This not only demonstrates the greater activity of the rennet at a higher heat, but the importance of an even heat throughout, and of keeping it from falling. Some throw a cloth over the vat, after the milk begins to thicken and agitation is no longer necessary to keep the cream from rising. This is a good practice, we believe, as it retards the reduction of temperature by radiation, and keeps the heat more equalized. This will secure a more uniform action of the rennet, and render the cutting less difficult and less liable to cause waste.

When the rennet is once added and thoroughly incorporated with the milk, we believe it would be better if the mass could have perfect rest until the curd is ready to cut. We think the curd is more likely to be spongy in consequence of the continued or frequent agitation kept up to prevent the cream from rising. All know that a stir too much after the milk begins to look thick, and roll heavily, prevents the formation of a solid curd. It refuses to unite in one uniform mass, and remains in small, separate particles. But, when the milk is all right, observation will show that such a curd makes fine cheese, though there is great waste from the fine particles floating off with the whey. And why will it make fine cheese? Because it is in small particles, gets thoroughly and evenly cooked, and the butter is equally distributed through it.

But the difficulty of preventing the cream from rising and forming a cream-curd, that will float on the whey, if it does not waste, needs to be overcome before we can allow the milk perfect rest after incorporating the rennet. We are not aware of any method for accomplishing this. Agitation of the surface, at least, seems necessary to retain the cream; but if the surface only is agitated, manifestly the cream will escape from the bottom of the mass and impoverish it while enriching the top. A thorough stirring of the whole mass, therefore, will keep the cream more equally distributed, and it will also secure a greater uniformity of temperature. The cheese must be of evener texture than if made of curd of different degrees of richness mixed together.

It is a question for debate as to whether the cream which rises on milk is thoroughly incorporated with it by stirring. That butter is wasted in making cheese, is a fact that cannot be denied. Some think that nearly all the cream that rises on the vat during the night is floated off in the whey. We cannot indorse this conclusion, although it is asserted that where agitators are used, and the cream is thus prevented from rising, there is a great saving of the butter. But one fact is worth a thousand fictions in the practical affairs of life, whatever it be in romance. Cream will mix with the milk by stirring, and go to enrich the cheese, as is proved in the manufacture of the English Stilton cheese. In the manufacture of this, the cream of the night's milk is taken off and added to the morning's milk, which is worked up separately. The cheese is greatly enriched thereby. How much the waste of butter is increased, we are unable to say. We know from our own experience, that skimming the night's milk, instead of stirring in the cream, makes a marked difference in the yield and quality of the make.

The first thing in setting, when a vat of milk is raised to the proper temperature, is to add the coloring. This is a strong alkaline preparation, and must have a tendency to retard the development of the lactic acid, if it does not combine with it in forming a neutral salt. If no effect is perceptible, beyond the color it imparts, it is simply because the quantity is so small. Probably the effect of the alkali in the annotto is more than counteracted by the acid in the rennet.

Nothing as good as clear whey has been found for soaking rennets. Some think the acid an advantage in the working of the milk, and others go so far as to add, in cold weather, a quantity of sharp whey to the milk along with that in the prepared rennet. This, of course, hastens the development of acid throughout the mass. But we cannot say that we approve of doing anything to change the milk, and thus sour the curd before cooking. We prefer to have the milk as sweet as possible when set, and to keep the curd sweet until it is cooked. Then we would develop the acid in the whey. For this reason, if sour whey is to be added, we should add it after the curd is cooked, for the purpose of hastening the development of the lactic acid in the whey. This seems to us to be the most rational course, from what our experience has taught us. If fair experiment should demonstrate that we are in error as to when and where the development of the acid should take place, we shall be willing to yield the point.

The amount of prepared rennet that it is necessary to add to the milk, depends upon its strength, which can be determined only by experiment. Sufficient should be used to coagulate the milk in ten or fifteen minutes, and render it fit to cut in thirty or forty minutes. If the milk is "old," the same quantity of rennet will cause it to work sooner, as it should. Some would add less rennet. We would not. The milk needs to work faster, and the acid, although it coagulates the milk, will not supply the place of the rennet. The rennet ought to be strong enough to require not more than a quart to a thousand pounds of milk.

CHAPTER XIV. CUTTING CURDS.

Cheese-making was once carried on without cutting the curd; and even since the introduction of the factory system, there have been those who denounced the idea of using a cutting instrument. Breaking up the curd with the hands was considered the better method as incurring less waste, both of butter and cheese. Such ideas, though entertained but a few years ago, are obsolete. Cutting curds is now universal, certainly in America. The only questions are as to the time, manner and extent of cutting.

When should the curd be cut? Practically, there is little difference of opinion on this question. Some may cut a little sooner or later than others, and even the same person may not always be precise as to the time of cutting. But all will agree that a curd should not be cut before it is firm enough to break square and smooth over the finger without whitening the whey; and they will also agree that it should be cut before it gets tough enough to drive along ahead of the knife. We would cut it as soon as it can be done without waste, while the curd is tender; and we would do all the cutting at once. There is no sense in running the knife through the curd one way, and then letting the curd stand and toughen before cross-cutting and completing the operation. If it is fit to partly cut, it is fit to wholly cut; and the sooner the cutting is done with, the better. Time for the separation of the whey can be given after the cutting is done, and before the heat is further raised.

The cutting should be done as carefully as possible and as evenly as possible. The fewer the motions, the better. If it could be done instantaneously and uniformly, without agitation, it would be an advantage. At the right time, we would like to have the entire vat of curd instantaneously separated into pieces of uniform size. This is the end to be aimed at. We are far from reaching it with present appliances. We can only approximate it as nearly as possible. A knife, therefore, with blades near together is preferable to one with blades farther apart.

As to the extent of the cutting, there is more difference of opinion, though the difference has much diminished since the mania for coarse curds ran its course. A few yet cling to this exploded notion; but the great majority choose a medium degree of fineness. It has been found that the large pieces do not sufficiently cook, especially if the milk is old enough to work quick. The consequence is an uneven texture, and a deteriorated flavor. Sufficient whey remains in the centers of the large lumps to ferment and give the cheese the smell of the whey-vat, if it does not sour and cause the cheese to become leaky and dry. Possibly, if the weather be favorable for curing, the whey may collect in pungent drops throughout the cheese, showing themselves when cut somewhat as they do in the Limburger. Such cheese, we think, is likely to ultimately approximate the Limburger in both odor and flavor. It will please some tastes, but will not answer for the best markets.

Medium curds are now the rule. As cheese-makers have approximated fine curds, they have improved the quality of their cheese. We believe still finer cutting will prove a further advantage. We will give our reasons for thinking so, and will add that our experience, as far as it goes, corroborates the idea. It secures a more uniform action of the heat and separation of the whey, and therefore an evener texture and better flavor, with correspondingly improved keeping qualities.

What is the object and advantage of cutting at all? Why not let the curd remain in one unbroken mass? We cut the curd for the purpose of facilitating the separation of the fluids from the solids by the combined action of the rennet and heat. Is it not desirable that this action should be uniform on every particle of curd? We think this question will be generally answered in the affirmative. If so, then it must be conceded that the finer the curd is cut the more nearly the desired result will be attained. If it could be separated particle from particle, without waste, would not the action of the heat and rennet be more perfect still? When in lumps, the externals of them must necessarily be cooked more than the centers, and the evil of over-cooking—if there is such an evil with a blood heat temperature—is illy counteracted by the mixture of curd cooked to different degrees—some overdone and some underdone. It should all be cooked alike, to whatever degree the cooking may be carried. This will secure uniformity of texture and quality, and also clean flavor, if the cooking is complete.

But, of course, in cutting a curd fine there is danger of waste—waste of curd, but not necessarily waste of butter, unless the curd is sour. Then it is impossible to avoid waste of butter by any process that we are aware of—and with a sour curd there is all the more necessity for cutting fine and cooking rapidly and thoroughly. With proper care, the evil of sour milk can be avoided. With good sweet milk and proper management, there is very little danger of waste of any kind, cut as fine as we can with the common knife.

We would cut so that the pieces when cooked should not be larger than kernels of corn; and though many object to it, we should not, if the pieces were as small as buckwheat—and as regular in size. We would not use a knife with the blades more than a quarter of an inch apart. Though we have never used a knife for cutting horizontally, the idea commends itself to our judgment. We would carefully cut first with the horizontal knife, leaving the thin slabs of curd lying one upon the other. Then, without waiting for the whey to rise or the curd to sink, we would use the perpendicular blades lengthwise of the vat, reducing the slabs to long square strips, and follow this with the cross-cutting until the pieces were at least as small as beechnuts. After this, the curd may be allowed to stand a few minutes, for the whey to separate, before starting the heat—provided the milk is sweet enough to permit of delay. But if the milk should give any indication of being old, we would begin at once to gradually raise the heat; if quite old and changed, we would crowd the heat as fast as practicable.

To sum up in brief, we would cut a curd and complete the cutting as soon as it can be done without waste; we would cut it as expeditiously as possible and with as few motions; we would cut it as fine as care against waste would warrant; we would raise the heat as gradually and evenly as circumstances would permit; we would cook as thoroughly and as evenly as possible; we would keep up the heat until the curd is done; we would then let the acid develop in the whey until it is plainly changed; we would dip as warm as convenient, drain and salt, cool to at least 80°, and then put to press. With good milk, good rennet and a good place to cure the cheese in, we should expect in this way to turn out a tip-top article.

CHAPTER XV. HEAT.

One of the most important elements in cheese-making is heat; but we do not believe the importance of its proper regulation is sufficiently understood by our cheese-makers. We are aware that cheese can be made without the use of artificial heat. It is not such an article, however, as would meet with a ready sale, or be likely to increase the consumptive demand for cheese. A good-keeping, mild and nutty-flavored cheese cannot readily be produced, if at all, with a temperature lower than 96°; nor can a rich, buttery article be made with a temperature over 102°. We consider 6° the widest allowable range of heat, and think 98° to 100°, or full blood-heat, the best temperature.

Evenness and steadiness of temperature are two important points. That apparatus is best which heats the milk throughout the vat the most evenly—leaves it the freest from hot places and cold places, at the sides, ends, or on the bottom. A perfect apparatus would raise the temperature of every particle of milk at the same time and at the same rate; and retain this perfectly even heat at the desired point until the cooking is completed.

The difficulty, with most or all heating apparatus, is to raise the heat of the entire mass to the required temperature, without submitting some particles to a greater degree of heat than is necessary, or heating them in advance of the rest, to be stirred in and partially cooled again.

We believe that an even cook or scald is of the utmost importance, and that everything that can be should be done to secure that end. If thoroughly accomplished, with sweet milk to begin with, we have no fears as to the richness, fine flavor and good keeping qualities of the cheese. There is no other thing, in our opinion, which will go so far toward securing these three desirable qualities.

Another thing, as before indicated, we consider of great importance in securing a thorough cooking and proper separation of the whey from the curd. We refer to steadiness of temperature. It seems to us a great mistake, when the temperature is once up, to not keep it there, without rising or lowering. It seems a misapplication of terms to speak of cooking or scalding at a temperature of 98 or 100 degrees; yet, we all know that blood-heat is all that is required for cheese-making. This heat seems necessary. Perhaps it is because nature designed the gastric juice from the rennet to operate at the temperature. It is a well established fact that digestion will not go on when the temperature of the stomach is below that of blood-heat. We presume a much higher temperature is equally detrimental. This may account for the fact that blood-heat is the best for cheese-making, as at that temperature the rennet is most active. Be this as it may, we are satisfied that the process is retarded and the curd deteriorated by allowing the temperature to fall during the time it is in the scald. Instead of cooking, and condensing, as it should, in order to expel the whey, it is only soaking and souring. The moment the acid is sufficiently developed, though the curd be yet soft and raw, the whey is drawn, the curd is further cooled and soaked, and then dipped, drained, salted and put to press. A leaky cheese is the result. If the weather is cool and bad for curing, a sour cheese follows. But whatever the weather may be, we doubt if a leaky cheese ever yet turned out all right in flavor and quality. It can never have that nutty, new-milk flavor which belongs to cheese properly cooked. We presume there are those who will differ with us in opinion, but we should demand the positive evidence of at least four senses before believing we are wrong.

We say, therefore, raise your temperature gradually and evenly, to full blood-heat, and there retain it until your curd is ready to dip. Then we believe it would be an advantage to dip and drain, without cooling more than what cannot be avoided, and salt warm. But of salting, we will speak more at length some other time. We are now discussing the question of heat. Let us give a little every-day illustration. Suppose the housewife were to put her potatoes for dinner in a kettle of water, run the heat up to 212°, and then allow it to cool by radiation until the potatoes are done. What kind of a dish would they make? Or, after she had cooked her potatoes, suppose she should let them stand and soak until they are cool enough to handle without danger of burning or scalding any one. Who would want to eat the watery things? The truth is, 212° is the proper temperature for boiling potatoes, and the sooner and hotter you can get them out of the water, the better. So, in our opinion, blood-heat, or 98° to 100°, is the proper temperature for cooking cheese curd, and that after the curd is done, the sooner and warmer it is dipped, the better for the curd—the sweeter, richer-flavored and better grained (not pasty, but more of the consistency of hard, well-made butter, which shows the batter globules whole) will be the cheese, and its keeping qualities will be correspondingly improved. It may be a little more work to cool the curd in the air, and harder keeping it from packing; but if dipped warm, the whey will the sooner drain off, and the salt can be the sooner thrown on, when it will penetrate quicker, season the mass more evenly, and form a coating to the particles of curd, which will keep them from packing together.

But whether the curd is cooled before dipping or not, we maintain that it is a great advantage to keep the temperature up to blood-heat during the entire process after the heat is once raised. With self-heating apparatus, this can be done by keeping a very little fire going—just enough to supply the loss of heat from radiation. Where the heating is done by running warm water around the milk-vat, a current of the proper temperature can be kept up. If steam is used, perhaps a small jet can be kept pouring into the space around the vat. But in all these cases, the danger is that too high a temperature will have to be kept up at the point of applying the heat, in order to prevent the temperature of the whole mass from falling. This is a decided objection, and necessitates a great deal of stirring, which is only a palliative of and not a remedy for the evil.

Of course we write with reference to the management of heat with milk that is sweet and in proper condition for cheese-making. Where it is "old," or tainted, to begin with, it is necessary to hurry the heat, and every operation connected with the process of making it up. A higher temperature and less time will be found to produce a very similar effect to a lower temperature and more time. But, in all cases, an even, steady heat should be aimed at and maintained to the end.

We never could quite understand the philosophy of cooking less in the spring and fall than in the summer. The idea that it makes the cheese more buttery to dip the curd raw, seems to us very absurd. If there is any time when a curd needs to be thoroughly cooked, it is when the weather is cool and unfavorable for curing. If the whey is not properly expelled by the action of heat, it has got to either dry out or leak out, or both. If there is too much left in the curd to dry out, long before it can leak out, your cheese will be sour, with a puckered face, and sundry ugly cracks. Even when the cheese does not absolutely drip, if the curd is dipped while underdone, it will sour, the face will have a corrugated appearance, and the cheese will "try" crumbly and sour. The color will also be paler than in those that are properly cooked, the general look will be clammy, and no rind will form that will be satisfactory. Even when well-cooked and well-made, if a cheese does not have sufficient warmth, it will sour on the ranges and spoil; and it stands to reason that cheese made from a curd insufficiently cooked must work a great deal worse under unfavorable conditions for curing. Our experience is, that a curd needs more cooking in the spring and fall than will answer in hot, dry weather. If we must have a curd dipped soft at any season of the year, we say let it be at that season when the weather is best for drying and curing. A cheese that would become worthless on the ranges in cold, wet weather, may turn out pretty fair in "dog days." But we do not believe in undercooking at any time. Food, of all kinds, needs as much cooking one season of the year as another. It is quite likely, however, that a degree or two lower heat will answer in cool weather, for the reason that milk keeps better then, and the curd remains longer in the scald before taking on acid. In this case, we have a lower heat for a longer time, which will produce the same result as a higher heat for a shorter time. But in both cases the curd ought to be cooked the same. Whatever degree of heat is decided upon, let it be kept up, steady and uniform throughout the mass, and at all seasons of the year let the curd be cooked done. This is specially important when the conditions for curing are unfavorable. You must do, then, in the vat part of the work which can be done on the ranges when the weather is favorable.

CHAPTER XVI. ACID.

Another important agent in cheese-making is acid. This you are pretty sure to have, at some stage of the process, and the chief question seems to be as to when you will have it. It is said that milk fresh from the cow manifests the presence of lactic acid. The quantity is very slight, however, and under favorable circumstances the development is slow. Where milk is properly cooled immediately after being taken from the cow, and the factoryman has good facilities for keeping it cool, it will be found, when the time comes to begin the process of working up, what is called "sweet." It will not taste as fresh and clean as when first cooled after milking; but no acid will be perceptible to either taste or smell—not even enough to make it what is termed "old."

Some think age makes the milk all the better for cheese-making, and we believe it is generally understood that milk fresh from the cow does not work quite satisfactorily. However, we place no great stress on this opinion. Old milk will work quicker than new milk; the acid will develop sooner to the point desired by the cheese-maker, and this saving of time doubtless has something to do with the decision in favor of age in milk for the purpose of cheese-making.

Our impression is, that milk cannot be too sweet when the rennet is added, and that if sufficient time is taken to develop the acid in the whey before dipping, the fresh milk will be found to turn out the finest-flavored and best-keeping cheese. The acid is not wanted in the curd, but in the whey. If the milk is sour, to begin with, or quite advanced toward sourness, the lactic acid must pervade every particle of the whole mass. Now, it strikes us that the correct idea is to expel the whey from the curd, as far as possible, before the acid makes its appearance, and let the acid develop in the whey afterward, so as to furnish a sort of pickle. The acid will develop sharply at some stage in the process; and, as we have before said, the question to be decided seems to be as to what point it is best to have it develop at.

We say, with the light we at present have before us, we think the acid should never be allowed to develop much before the curd is cooked and the whey is properly expelled; then let the whey take on acid to quite a perceptible degree before dipping the curd. We doubt if it makes much difference whether the acidulation takes place while the curd is floating in the whey, or after the whey is drawn off and while the curd stands and drains. There is rather more convenience in handling to leave the whey on and stir the curd sufficiently to keep it from packing; but the "cheddar" cheese, which is generally considered the best of any, is made by stacking the curd, after cooking, and allowing the whey that clings to it to take on acid. But where the milk is all right, to begin with, and the curd is properly managed and cooked, we doubt if it makes any material difference which process is adopted for allowing the acid to develop. With such a curd, there is little danger of its being injured by the acid, as any one can demonstrate by allowing curd to stand unpressed over night, as is often done with small remnants, when the pieces will be found covered with an almost vinegar-sour acid. Grind this curd and put it to press, and there will be no signs of sour cheese.

The development of the acid is absolutely necessary to secure good keeping qualities and a mild, clean flavor. Dip a curd before the whey has become perceptibly acid, or is on the verge of "changing," and we think that a rank, bitter flavor will be sure to follow. The absence of sufficient lactic acid leaves the albumen in a condition likely to decompose, while the butyric acid develops itself, as in rancid butter, and the two combine to make a very unpalatable flavor to one nice about the taste of his cheese. Some prefer strong cheese. To such, the nearer the flavor approaches that of smoked herring and tobacco, the greater the gustatory gratification.

The principal difficulty in working up sour milk is to get sufficient action of the rennet and heat on the curd to properly condense it and expel the whey. It is a mistake, therefore, to dip a curd soft because it is sour. Run your heat up to 104° or even 106°, as soon as possible, and keep it there until your curd is cooked. It is sour, and nothing but cooking will save it, if anything will. The whey must and will come out. If you do not expel it from the particles of curd in the vat, you will not be able to press it out sufficiently to keep it from working and leaking out while the cheese stands on the ranges.

If anything will prevent sour milk from making leaky cheese, it is thorough cooking. This process you should hurry up as much as possible—always having an eye to keeping the heat even, and preventing waste of butter. The acid, acting on the butter globules, makes their coatings tender. Therefore, handle the curd as carefully as possible, cool well before putting to press, and press gently, increasing the pressure gradually. But, if you have succeeded in getting your curd properly cooked, you have done one of the best things possible to retain the butter. If, when you put the curd to press, you find you have more than the usual bulk of curd, filling the hoops fuller and refusing to yield readily to the pressure of the screw—as is generally the case with sour milk, as managed in most factories—you may know that you have not done your work thoroughly, and therefore look out for leaky, sour, poor cheese. On the other hand, if you have condensed the curd to the usual bulk, so that it works well under the screw, you may hope for a fair cheese, that may pass muster when the buyer comes along.

We often hear the remark, when anything is said about developing the acid, "No sour cheese for me; I prefer to dip my curd sweet." People who talk in this way either make bitter, bad-flavored cheese, or else get on more acid than they are aware of, in consequence of having dull taste and smell. They judge by the appearance and feel of the curd when it is in condition to dip, and may succeed in hitting the right point. In hot weather, it is hardly possible not to develop the acid sufficiently. But if they really dip the curd sweet, we do not believe it possible that their cheese can be up to the standard demanded by the best markets, though they may succeed in getting a fair price for it. Not all buyers are really good judges, and fewer still know what the matter is with a cheese that is imperfectly made. They know, perhaps, that there is something wrong about it; but what, they are unable to say. Further, we believe the average price of American cheese lower than it should be, in consequence of so little really prime cheese, and of the large amount of second-rate; and that, as yet, our buyers are not sufficiently discriminating in their purchases and prices, though they are yearly growing more so. Both buyers and cheese-makers need more experience and a better understanding of what is requisite in the manufacture of a prime article.

CHAPTER XVII. DIPPING CURDS.

There is nothing so difficult in cheese-making as to determine the exact point when a curd ought to be taken out of the vat and salted. A slight variation either way from this point makes an uneven lot of cheese, and much variation spoils the batch, so that it will not pass for "prime." Every cheese-maker has felt the want of some test whereby the exact point, when a curd is sufficiently "done" to dip, can be determined with certainty. Neither the sense of smell, the sense of taste, nor the sense of touch is infallible. The evidence of this fact can be seen in any factory during the season of cheese-making. A simple test of acidity, which is claimed to be conclusive, is the application of a hot iron to a lump of curd. The iron wants to be searing hot—not red hot, but hot enough to toast cheese. Take up a small handful of curd, squeeze the whey out of it, and touch the hot iron to it, holding it there for a moment, or until it adheres and begins to melt or toast the cheese. Then pull the iron gently away from the curd. If the curd is raw and sweet, it will break short off from the iron and appear crumbly. If slightly acid, it will slightly pull out in threads, but not very long ones. As the acid develops, the stringiness increases. At a certain point, the curd will cling to the iron and pull out in numerous fine threads an inch or two long. Beyond this point, the threads grow longer but fewer, until there will be only one, which will draw out a foot or so, and then break, recoiling somewhat like India-rubber. Indeed, the curd grows tougher and more stringy from the time it begins to take on acid perceptibly, until it finally ends in stringing indefinitely, like wax, having passed the point of breaking and flying back. The successive stages of development are gradual, but very marked, and cannot fail to be recognized after a few experiments.

Thus having obtained a means of telling the degree of acid developed, it only remains to be decided at what point to dip the curd. It is claimed that the proper one is where the threads are the finest and most numerous. Beyond this point, the threads diminish in number but increase in length, which is an indication of too much acid. It is asserted that the hot iron test is uniform and reliable, besides being easy of application. Cheese-makers can make their own experiments, and we advise them to try the hot iron to their own satisfaction. If it should prove as conclusive as good judges think it will, it will be of immense value to our dairymen.

This test reminds us of the test used by maple-sugar makers to determine when the batch has reached the point where it will "grain" and "cake" well. They make a small bow of a twig, dip it into the sugar, which adheres to and fills it, and then they blow through the bow. If no bubble forms and floats off like a soap-bubble, the batch is not done. But if they can blow a string of bubbles, or one long bubble, it is time to remove the heat. The stringing of the cheese-curd, on the application of the hot iron, seems to afford a very similar test for the cheese-maker.

It is not claimed that the use of the hot iron will necessarily insure the making of good cheese. It only determines the degree of acidity, which is one very important point. Other things are requisite to the manufacture of a prime article, and the same care, attention, and labor, in other matters, will remain just as essential. By using the hot iron, however, it is claimed that the cheese-maker can tell, every time, just how sour his curd is.

CHAPTER XVIII. SALTING CURDS.

We believe there is not much controversy on the question of salting curd. One says, salt it hot, and another says, cool it first. But the variation in temperature is but a few degrees, and can hardly be supposed to have much effect. On the whole, we prefer salting as warm as practicable, as the curd then takes the salt better and the seasoning is likely to be evener. But the sooner the salt is thrown on, the greater the waste will be from running off in the whey. If the curd were thoroughly drained, or pressed out, as it is by the English in the manufacture of cheddar cheese, before the salt is added, considerable less would be needed. Some salt the curd in the vat, while it is yet covered with whey, and think this the better way. We opine, however, it matters but little when the salt is added, if it be distributed evenly throughout the mass of curd and is used in the proper quantity. The common method is to salt in the curd-sink, while the curd is draining—generally as soon after it is dipped as it can be stirred into a loose condition suitable for evenly mixing the salt.

We have heard the opinion expressed that it matters not whether the curd is well separated after salting, or left in coarse chunks with the salt adhering to their surfaces when put to press, as salt is very penetrating and the pressing drives the salt whey all through the cheese. But the common practice is not based on such a conclusion, and we think it well that it is not. Even salting we consider as essential in cheese-making as in butter-making.

The amount of salt used at the different factories varies from four ounces to five ounces for a hundred pounds of milk, or from two pounds and a half to three pounds and an eighth for a thousand pounds of milk, or a hundred pounds of curd. The higher rate of salting is thought to somewhat retard the curing, but it will help the keeping qualities of the cheese.

For convenience sake, and to save time and the liability to mistakes when in a hurry, we would recommend the making of a scale or table, based on the rate of salting adopted, ranging from twenty or twenty-five pounds up to a hundred, and then for the hundreds up to the capacity of the vat. It takes but a little while, during some leisure hour, to make such a tabular scale. When made and stuck up in some convenient place—say, over the salt barrel, or over the balances—it will enable any one not familiar with or quick in figures to see at a glance how much salt is needed for the curd of a given amount of milk. It is a convenience, too, that will last as long as the factory, if taken care of.

For the benefit of whom it may concern, we give the following tables:

TABLE
For Salting at the Rate of 2 lbs. 8 ozs.
to 1,000 lbs. of Milk.

TABLE
For Salting at the Rate of 3 lbs. 2 ozs.
to 1,000 lbs. of Milk.

We presume the method of using these tables will be plain enough to most cheese-makers. But we will give a single illustration. Supposing the batch of milk to be 4,640 pounds, if we wish to salt at the rate of 3 lbs. 2 ozs. to the 1,000 pounds of milk, we look at the column indicating the quantity of salt for a given number of thousands, and find that 4,000 pounds of milk require 12 lbs. 8 ozs. of salt. Referring to the other column, we find 400 pounds of milk require 1 lb. 4 ozs. salt, and 40 pounds, 2 ozs. Add these together, and we have 13 lbs. 14 ozs. as the quantity of salt required for 4,640 lbs. of milk. If desired, a table can be made out, with little trouble, that will show the quantity of salt required for any given number of hundreds of pounds of milk likely to be contained in a single vat.