[1] Εναιμα, Αναιμα. Hist. Animal. l. i. c. 6.
[2] Hist. Animal. l. i. c. 5, 6: compare 1. v. c. 3 and 33, and De Partibus Animal. l. iv. c. 1 and 11.
[3] Το δε σκληρον αυτων ου σθραυσον αλλα φλασον.
[4] Hist. Animal. l. iv. c. 1.
[5] Εντομα πολυποδα μεν γαρεσι παντα. De Part. Animal. l. iv. c. 6.
[6] Hist. Animal. l. iv. c. 19.
[7] The insection that distinguishes these parts, the abdomen especially, is most visible in the majority of the Hymenoptera and Diptera orders; next in some Coleoptera, as the Lamellicorn tribes, &c. and the Lepidoptera. Latreille is of opinion, that the two last segments of the thorax in some insects are represented by the first of the abdomen, and that the upper half segment of this part in Coleoptera also represents the same. Latr. De quelques Appendices, &c. Annales Générales des Sciences Physiques. A Bruxelles, vi. livrais, xviii. 14. In fact, in the Lepidoptera, when the abdomen is separated from the trunk, this segment usually remains attached to the latter. In the Myriapods, the trunk is to be distinguished from the abdomen only by its bearing the three first pair of legs.
[8] There is no general rule without exceptions, and no character is so universal as to be distinctly exhibited by every member of a class or other natural group. Thus, in the majority of the mites (Acarus L.) the body is marked by no segments, and the only articulation or incision is in the legs, palpi, &c. But as the exception does not make void the rule, so neither does the extenuation or absence of some primary character at its points of junction with others, in some individuals, annihilate the class or group.
[9] Hist. Nat. l. xi. c. 1.
[10] Animalcula polypoda, spiraculis lateralibus respirantia, cute ossea cataphracta; antennis mobilibus sensoriis instruuntur. Syst. Nat. ed. 12. i. 533.
[11] Quoted by Mr. Wm. MacLeay in his very remarkable and learned work Horæ Entomologicæ, in which he inclines to the same opinion. 383.
[12] Treviranus (Ueber den innern Bau der Arachniden, &c. 22.) always calls the palpi of spiders "Fülhörner." In Scorpio he regards them as palpi (Palpen).
[13] N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat. xvi. 181.
[14] Treviranus, ut supra, 48. For the nervous system of scorpions, see t. i. f. 13; and for that of spiders, t. v. f. 45.
[15] Plate XXIX. Fig. 2. Treviranus, t. i. f. 1.
[16] Cuvier Anat. Comp. iv. 407.
[17] N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat. ix. 190.
[18] The females of Dorthesia, however, a genus related to Coccus, are said to survive laying their eggs. N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat. ix. 553.
[19] Anim. sans Vertebr. i. 381.
[20] Anim. sans Vertebr. i. 457.
[21] The number five, which Mr. MacLeay assumes for one basis of his system as consecrated in Nature, seems to me to yield to the number seven, which is consecrated both in Nature and Scripture. Metaphysicians reckon seven principal operations of the mind; musicians seven principal musical tones; and opticians seven primary colours. In Scripture the abstract idea of this number is—completion—fullness—perfection. I have a notion, but not yet sufficiently matured, that Mr. MacLeay's quinaries are resolvable into septenaries.
[22] Anim. sans Vertebr. i. 381.
[23] See on this point MacLeay, Hor. Entomolog. 209—.
[24] Anim. sans Vertebr. iii. 243.
[25] Ibid. iii. 245.
[26] Anim. sans Vertebr. iii. 245.
[27] Ibid.
[28] Des Rapports généraux, &c. des Anim. invertebr. artic., Ann. du Mus.
[29] Ibid. Hor. Entomolog. 383.
[30] Leach in Entomologist's Useful Compendium, by Samouelle, 75.
[31] Hor. Entomolog. 348.
[32] Ibid. 354.
[33] Ibid. 373.
[34] Ibid. 381.
[35] Ibid. 389.
[36] There is some reason for thinking, though the octopod and myriapod insects breathe by tracheæ, that there is no small difference in the distribution of these organs. The Trachean Arachnida have only a pair of spiracles, from which the tracheæ must radiate, if I may so apply the term, in order to convey the necessary supply of air to every part of the body. Scutigera, as far as I can discover, has only a single series of dorsal spiracles (see Plate XXIX. Fig. 20)—an unusual situation for them: in these also, to attain the above end, each trachea must also radiate, so as to supply each part of the segment it is in. Those of Iulus, according to the observations of Savi (Osservaz. per servire alla Storia di una Specie de Iulus, &c. 15—), consist of bundles of parallel tracheæ. Perhaps these circumstances would warrant the considering of these Arachnida and the Myriapoda as primary classes? The genus Galeodes is said to breathe by gills similar to those of the Araneidæ, which structure, probably, carries with it a system of circulation, and exhibits a third type in the Arachnida, with four palpi, six legs, and a distinct thorax. This genus, then, is the corresponding point in the Arachnida to the Hexapod Aptera, as the Scorpions are to the Cheliferidæ or Pseudo-Scorpions, and the Araneidæ to the other Octopods; and these analogies furnish a strong proof, that the Tracheans belong rather to Insecta than Arachnida. Comp. N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat. xxvi. 445; and Description de six Arachnid. nouv. &c. par Leon Dufour, 16.
[37] Mr. MacLeay observes with regard to the Tardigrade, described by Spallanzani and Dutrochet, that "it proves that an animal may exist without antennæ or distinct annular segments to the body, but having two eyes and six articulate legs." (Hor. Entomolog. 350—.) Many Acari prove the same thing. De Geer, vii. t. vii. f. 14.
[38] De Geer, vii. t. iii. f. 8.
[39] Hor. Entomolog. 351.
[40] De Geer, Ibid. 571, 583. t. xxxvi. f. 20, 21.
[41] Dufour ubi supra. Hor. Entomolog. 382.
[42] Male Insecta in some instances engender more than once. Mr. MacLeay sen. has observed this with regard to Chrysomela Polygoni, and I have noticed it in Bombyx Mori.
[43] Hor. Entomolog. 134. 200.
[44] Zoolog. Miscell. iii. t. 146. In this figure the segments are made much more distinct than they are in my specimen.
[45] Hor. Entomolog. 422—.
[46] See above, Vol. I. 4th Ed. p. 66. Note[90].
[47] Surely the denomination ought to have been Arachnido-Crustacea, since the learned author considers them as belonging to the Crustacea class.
[48] It may not be without use to give here a short definition of the Annulosa; I mean excluding the Vermes, which Mr. W. MacLeay has included; and the Annelida, which Latreille has made the fifth of his Annulose classes. Ann. du Mus. 1821.
Annulosa. Animal invertebrate, oviparous; external integument of a firmer consistence than the internal substance, serving as a general point of attachment to the muscles; eyes immoveable; legs more than four, jointed.
Classes.
1. Crustacea. Gills external; more than eight legs.
2. Arachnida. Gills internal; spiracles; eight legs.
3. Insecta. Tracheæ; spiracles; six to eight thoracic legs.
[49] What L. Dufour regards as the liver in Scorpio (N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat. xxx. 421.) Treviranus looks upon as an Epiploon (Fettkörper) both in Scorpio and Aranea. 6. t. i. f. 6. A A. t. ii. f. 24. dd. Hepatic ducts: t. i. f. 6. ii. t. ii. f. 24. β. β. β. β.
[50] S. minutissima of Marsham is synonymous with Dermestes atomarius De Geer, Scaphidium atomarium Gyllenh., and Latridius fascicularis Herbst., but surely arranging with none of these genera, being sufficiently distinguished from them and every other insect by its singular capillary wings. In my cabinet it stands under the name of Trichopteryx K.
[51] Panz. Fn. Germ. Init. lxii. 24. Comp. Hor. Entomolog. Addenda, &c. 523.
[52] The Annelida have, however, sometimes jointed organs, which facilitate their progressive motion whether vermicular or undulatory; but they cannot be deemed legs, since they neither support the body nor enable it to walk, &c. Latreille Anim. invertebr. Artic. 126. Ann. du Mus. 1821.
[53] De Antennis Insect. ii. 65.
[54] Nouv. Obs. sur les Abeilles, ii. 376—. It appears from M. Huber's experiment, that it was only when the hair-pencil, impregnated with the oil of turpentine, was presented "près de la cavité, au dessus de l'insertion de la trompe," that the bee was sensible of the odour.
[55] Anim. sans Vertebr. I. i. Mem. i.
[56] Plate VIII. Fig. 10-14; IX. Fig. 6-8.
[57] Coquebert Illust. Ic. iii. t. xxi. f. 3.
[58] Hor. Entomolog. 413—.
[59] N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat. xxviii.; compare 104 and 110.
[60] See above, Vol. I. Ed. 4. p. 63—.
[61] The word μεταμορφοω, and its derivative μεταμορφωσις, are not extant in any Greek writer before the date of the New Testament. They are used to express any external change of form or colour, and metaphorically an inward change and progressive improvement of the mind. Comp. Matth. xvii. 2. Ælian. Var. Hist. l. i. c. 1. Rom. xiii. 2. 2 Cor. iii. 18. They are, therefore, not improperly applied, as some have supposed, to the changes of insects.
[62] Entwickelungsgeschichte der Schmetterlinge 12-27. 105—.
[63] Dr. Virey's observations under the article Embryo (N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat. x. 195.) deserve here to be considered. "Il y a donc quelque chose au dessus de l'intelligence humaine dans cette formation des êtres; en vain on veut l'approfondir, c'est un abime dans lequel on ne voit que la main de Dieu. A quoi bon s'appesantir sur le mystère de la formation des êtres, sans esperance de l'expliquer? Ne vaut-il pas mieux observer les opérations de la nature autant qu'il est permis à l'œil humain de les appercevoir?"
[64] § xiv.
[65] N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat. x. 193.
[66] Œuv. v. 279. "Il n'est pas exact de dire que le cœur, la tête, et la moelle épinière, sont formés les premiers dans les fœtus des animaux à sang rouge et vertébrés," says Dr. Virey; "mais il faut dire seulement que tel est l'ordre dans lequel ces organes commencent à devenir visibles." N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat. x. 196.
[67] Ibid. 193.
[68] Œuvr. viii. 315.
[69] Hor. Entomolog. 446.
[70] See on this subject N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat. xx. article Metamorphosis.
[71] N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat. xx. 349—.
[72] N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat. xx. 348.
[73] Bibl. Nat. Ed. Hill. ii. 138.
[74] Œuvr. v. 283—.
[75] N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat. xx. 355.
[76] Leeuwenhoek discovered in the incipient fœtus of a sheep, not larger than the eighth part of a pea, all the principal parts of the future animal. Arc. Nat. I. ii. 165, 173.
[77] Bonnet, Œuvr. v. 284.
[78] N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat. xx. 352.
[79] Select Works by Hoole, i. 132. The fact is confirmed by M. L. Dufour, who, having opened the abdomen of a female scorpion, found in the midst of some eggs nearly mature a little scorpion a quarter of an inch long; it lay without motion, with its tail folded under the body. N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat. xxx. 426.
[80] Reaum. iv. 425—.
[81] Ibid. 428—. t. xxix. f. 10, 11.
[82] Busch, a German author, affirms that many Cimicidæ are subject to this law. Schneid. i. 206.
[83] Quoted in Huber Fourmis, 208. Some reptiles also are at one time oviparous, and at another ovo-viviparous. N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat. xii. 568.
[84] I say almost all insects, because the larvæ of Hymenoptera and Diptera are supposed not to undergo this change. N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat. xx. 365.
[85] Reaum. vi. Mém. xiv. De Geer, vi. 280.
[88] De Geer i. 494—.
[89] Called by M. l'Abbé Preaux, who observed it near Lisieux in Normandy, Mouche Baliste. N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat. xxi. 442.
[91] Reaum. vi. 509. t. xlv. f. 11, 12.
[92] Reaum. vi. 434.
[93] Ibid. vi. 494.
[94] The vesicles, which Reaumur thinks may be pulmonary vesicles, as well as assisting in the extrusion of the masses of eggs, he has figured t. xliv. f. 10. u u.
[95] De Geer ii. 534. t. xiii. f. 13.
[96] Coquebert Illustr. Ic. t. i. f. A. B.
[98] Ent. Carniol. 269. n. 705.
[99] Reaum. ii. 401.
[100] In Raii Hist. Ins. 264.
[102] Goeze Naturf. xvii. 183—. t. iv. f. 16-19. Comp. N. Dict. d' Hist. Nat. iii. 475. and xix. 239. De Geer iii. 533.
[103] Second Journey through Persia, 100—.
[106] Latr. Hist. Nat. des Fourmis, 334. N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat. ii. 284.
[107] Lister De Aran. Tit. 13, 14. N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat. ii. 284.
[108] Lister Ibid. 56. Tit. 15.
[109] N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat. xxvi. 447.
[110] Ins. Surinam, t. i.
[111] A striking instance of this may be seen in her forty-ninth plate, in which she has clapped the rostrated head of Fulgora laternaria upon the body of a Cicada Latr., affirming it to be the former fly in its previous state! This might be a trick upon her.
[112] N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat. xv. 489.
[113] Lesser L. i. 300.
[114] Annales du Muséum, xiv. 441.
[115] Lesser L. i. t. ii. f. xvi.
[116] Miger Ann. du Mus. ubi supr. Comp. N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat. xv. 482—.
[117] De Geer i. 192.
[118] Ibid. ii. 982.
[119] Reaum. ii. 97. 159.
[120] Ibid. 107—. t. iii. f. 15.
[121] De Geer iii. 48. 51.
[122] Reaum. v. 122.
[123] See above, Vol. I. p. 196. 202.
[124] Journ. de Phys. Philos. Mag. ix. 244.
[125] Reaum. iv. Mem. i.
[126] Rösel, ix. 157. t. 265?
[127] Ibid. iii. 197.
[128] See above, Vol. I. p. 195.
[130] Reaum. i. 95— f. 1-13.
[131] Reaum. iv. 615—. t. xliv. f. 2-7.
[132] N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat. xv. 445. Rös. iii. 156.
[133] Epist. 1687.
[135] See above, Vol. I. p. 344—.
[136] Reaum. iii. 8—.
[138] N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat. xxviii. 271.
[139] De Geer vii. 194.
[140] Compare N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat. xvi. 246. with xx. 352-; but as the Amnios immediately envelops the fœtus, the pellicle seems most analogous to it, and the shell to the Chorion.
[141] Swamm. Bibl. Nat. ed. Hill. l. 133. a. Comp. N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat. xvi. 246.
[142] Swamm. Ibid.
[143] Sepp. iv. t. iii. f. i. c. v. t. iv. f. 2.
[144] See above, Vol. I. p. 208: it is there called an Aphis, but it is a distinct genus.
[145] De Geer iii. 245. t. xiii. f. 20-22.
[146] Sepp. iv. t. xiii. f. 2. 3.
[147] The sturgeon is said to lay 1,500,000 eggs, and the cod-fish 9,000,000.
[148] Reaum. iv. 392.
[149] See above, Vol. I. p. 350.
[150] De Geer vii. 159.
[151] See above, Vol. II. p. 109.
[154] iv. t. xviii. f. 4. 5.
[155] De Geer ii. 638.
[156] Bibl. Nat. i. 132. b.
[157] Gould 36.
[158] Reaum. v. 477.
[159] Ibid. iii. 579. v. 121.
[160] Fourmis, 69—.
[161] Rösel iii. 152.
[162] De Geer vii. 145.
[163] Ibid. 123—. See above, Vol. I. p. 393.
[164] Raii Hist. Ins. 265.
[165] Eggs of various shapes are given Plate XX. Fig. 3-23. See also Brunnich. Entomologia 4. N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat. xvi. 245. Reaum. ii. t. iii. iv. xiv. xxvi. xxvii. &c.
[167] Plate XX. Fig. 23. Swamm. Bibl. Nat. t. iii. f. 7, 8. In a specimen I opened of this insect the bristles converged so as to form a kind of tail to the egg.
[168] Darwin Phytolog. 512.
[169] Geoffr. Ins. Par. i. 480. t. x. f. 1. b. c.
[170] See above, Vol. I. p. 261.
[171] Reaum. iii. 386—. t. xxxii. f. 1. t. xxxiii. f. 5.
[172] I allude to Ophion luteum F. (Ichneumon L.) Vol. i. Ed. 3. p. 269, figured Plate XX. Fig. 22; and the Hydrachnæ or Trombidia. See above, and De Geer vii. 145.
[173] From this circumstance called πολυποικιλος σοφια by the Apostle, Ephes. iii. 10.
[174] Nat. Theol. 11th Ed. 375.
[176] Reaum. iv. 376—. t. xxvii. f. 9, 10.
[177] Hist. Nat. gen. et partic. des Crust. et Ins. xii. 282.
[178] Reaum. iv. 381. t. xxvi. f. 19, 20.
[179] Roxburgh in Linn. Trans. vii. 34.
[180] Some of the Noctuæ have similar eggs, as N. Lappa. Sepp iv. t. iii. f. 1. c.
[181] Reaum. ubi supr. f. 22, 23.
[184] Ibid. Fig. 3. 4. 7. 9. &c.
[186] Bonnet Œuvr. ii. 9.
[187] Naturf. xiii. 229.
[188] N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat. xvi. 245.
[189] Reaum. ii. 286.
[190] Plate XX. Fig. 11. Sepp t. iv. f. 2.
[191] Reaum. iv. 617.
[192] Philos. Ent. 76.
[193] See above, Vol. I. 358—.
[194] See above, Vol. I. Ibid.
[195] Young's France, ii. 34. This author asserts, that no art will hatch the eggs of the common silk-worms the first year, or that in which they are laid; but that there is a sort brought from Persia, which are hatched three times a year, and which will hatch in fifteen days in the proper heat. In 1765, it is said, the common sort hatched in the first year. Ibid. 226—.
[196] In the N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat. xii. 564. the eggs of the flesh-fly are said to hatch in two hours. This is true I believe in very warm weather.
[197] Brahm. 310.
[198] Rimrod Naturf. xvi. 131.
[199] Fourmis. 69.
[200] De Geer vii. 195.
[201] Ibid. 196.
[202] Reaum. ii. 167.
[203] Brahm. 249. Rösel. iv. 130. Swamm. Bibl. Nat. t. i. f. 2.
[204] By Mr. White, jun. cordwainer at Ipswich.
[206] De Geer vii. 197.
[207] De Geer vii. 197.
[208] Ibid. 85.
[209] Epist. lxvii. 1694. 390.
[210] Enum. Ins. Austr. 575.
[211] N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat. i. 74.
[212] De Geer vii. 576.
[213] Ibid. 584.
[214] Considerat. Géner. 21. Horæ Entomolog. 353.
[215] De Geer, Ibid. Mr. W. MacLeay observes of the Chilopoda, or Centipedes, that they moult in the manner of Crustacea. ubi supr. 352.
[216] De Geer iii. 549. The figure of the forceps in De Geer (Ibid. t. xxv. f. 21) is not quite correct. The styles do not taper to a point, but are filiform and acute.
[217] Compare De Geer iii. t. xviii. f. 2 and 12. q.
[218] See above, Vol. II. p. 401.
[219] Plate XVI. Fig. 4. c. Reaum. v. t. xix. f. 16. De Geer ubi supr. t. xxxii. f. 26. According to Reaumur, the larva as well as the pupa of Chermes Ficus has wing-cases (iii. 353).
[220] These are in the female sex of some Coleoptera, as Lampyris, &c. which retain in the perfect state nearly the same form which they had when larvæ. The larvæ of some Staphylini are not very dissimilar in form to the perfect insect.
[221] The larvæ described in the first Section, which resemble the imago, are usually covered with a skin not materially different from that of the insect in that state.
[222] Huber Fourmis. 73; N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat. vi. 250.
[223] Reaum. v. 40. t. vi. f. 4-15.
[224] Müller, the Danish zoologist, relates, that he once met with a papilio which, with the true wings of the genus, had a head without antennæ or tongue, furnished with mandibles; and, in short, that of a true caterpillar. It was a female, which deposited eggs that proved barren. If this solitary instance was not a mistake, is it possible that some parasitic larva had devoured only the inclosed head of the butterfly, or so injured it that it could not reject the hard skin of the larva, and yet not be destroyed?
[225] The only larvæ which have a visible distinct neck are those of some Dytisci, Staphylini, and a few others, in which this part is quite distinct: proving the erroneousness of the opinion of those German entomologists, who consider the thorax as analogous to the neck of other animals, and hence call it Halsschild. In some lepidopterous larvæ, however, as in that of Pieris Brassicæ, though no visible neck presents itself, one is very perceptible when the insect stretches the head forward considerably. Reaum. i. 460.
[227] Reaum. v. t. vi. f. 7. i. c.
[228] In fact, in almost all Lepidopterous larvæ the head may be regarded as divided into two lobes or eye-shaped portions, which include in the angle formed by their recession anteriorly from each other, the nasus (clypeus F.), the labrum, and other instruments of manducation. Posteriorly these lobes generally come into contact; but I have a specimen in which there is a narrow space between them.
[229] Ins. Surinam. t. xvii.
[230] Ins. Surinam. t. liii.
[231] Ibid. t. xxxii.
[232] Ibid. t. viii.
[233] Ibid. t. xxiii.
[234] Ibid. t. xiv.
[235] I purchased this singular caterpillar from the collection of the late Mr. Francillon, with his other exotic larvæ; but without any indication of the fly to which it belonged.
[236] De Geer vi. 352.
[237] De Geer iv. 66. ii. 922.
[238] De Geer v. 170.
[239] De Geer says, he could not make out the number of eyes of the larva of the whirlwig (Gyrinus): probably, as in that of Dytiscus, there are six. iv. 362. 385.
[240] Pez. 188.
[241] ii. 923, t. xxxvi. f. 1, b b. Fabr. Philos. Ent. 60.
[242] Lyonnet 41. t. ii. f. 1. c.
[243] De Geer vi. 307.
[244] Ibid, ii. t. xvi. Comp. f. 2 a a with f. 14 a a.
[245] In the larva of Cicindela there are six palpi, as in the perfect insect.
[246] Lyonnet, t. i. f. 7. e. In the larva of Callidium violaceum, however, this part is of a singular shape, being orbicular. Kirby Linn. Trans. v. t. xii. f. 12. a.