[490] N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat. vii. 129.
[491] As the larvæ of Ephemeræ usually live in the submerged part of the banks of rivers, perhaps they may be regarded as following the economy of subterranean terrestrial larvæ.
[492] A caterpillar nearly answering to the description of that of Bombyx camelina, which I found upon the hazel, after a few days produced sixteen grubs of some Ichneumon. At first these grubs were green, but they became gradually paler; and after a day or two became pupæ. But I mention this circumstance here for another reason: upon examining them after this last occurrence, I observed that they adhered to the lid of the box in which I kept the larva, arranged somewhat circularly; and at a little distance from the anus of each was a pea-green mass, consisting of about eight oval granules, which appeared like so many minute eggs. These were the excrement evacuated by each grub previously to its becoming a pupa. The appearance of this little group, with their verdant appendage, formed a curious spectacle: they are still pupæ, July 30, 1822.
[493] Except some species of Polyammatus Latr. (Thecla, Argynnis F.), P. Argiolus, Corydon, &c., and Hesperia Rubi, Betulæ F., &c. Some of the larvæ of the former become pupæ within the stalk of some plant, or partly under the earth: those of the latter usually in a leaf to which the abdomen is fastened by various threads. These last are the rouleuses of the butterfly-tribe, living, like some moths, in leaves that they have rolled up. N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat. xxiv. 499.
[496] Bonnet is of opinion that this twirling process is not with any view to get rid of the exuviæ, but is caused only by the irritation occasioned by the spines of the skin of the caterpillar when they touch that of the pupa. Œuv. ii. 109.
[497] For the above account see Reaum. i. Mem. x. xi.
[498] N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat. vi. 291—.
[499] De Bombyc. 24.
[500] i. 498.
[501] De Bombyc. 43.
[502] N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat. vi. 294.
[503] Lesser. L. ii. 150, note 22. Boyle says an English lady found that the silk of a single cocoon would extend 300 English leagues or 900 miles. But this must be a mistake.
[504] Reaum. i. 555—.
[506] De Geer i. t. xxxii. f. 3-6.
[507] De Geer i. 463—.
[508] Reaum. ii. Mem. xi. Comp. De Geer ii. 162. Reaum. ii. 424.
[509] B. Catax—Pupa arcte folliculata. Fab.
[510] Travels in Greece, 285.
[511] See above, Vol. I. p. 476—.
[512] Merian Surinam. t. xv.
[513] Reaum. ii. t. xxiii. f. 5.
[514] Sepp. iv. t. viii. f. 5.
[515] Reaum. i. t. xliv. f. 2.
[517] I have a black one from Mr. Francillon's cabinet.
[518] N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat. vi. 294.
[519] See above, Vol. II. p. 298—.
[520] Reaum. ii. 436.
[521] Reaum. i. 503.
[522] Peck on Locust-tree Insects, 69.
[523] Bonnet ii. 260.
[524] Sepp. iv. t. ii. f. 4.
[525] Brahm. Ins. Kal. 289.
[527] The thick cocoons of Attacus Paphia, Polyphemus, &c. are also thus fastened between leaves.
[528] Merian Europ. ii. t. ix.
[529] Reaum. ii. 284.
[530] Ibid. i. 524.
[531] Bonnet ii. 297.
[532] Ibid. ix. 181.
[533] Reaum. v. 102.
[534] Ibid. iv. 269.
[535] De Geer ii. 1084. Comp. Ray Hist. Ins. Præf. xi. It is the opinion of M. P. Huber, that in this case the naked pupæ are deprived of their cocoons by the neuters: he states, indeed, that he has often seen them pulled off by them, and also by those of F. canicularia; and he seems to think that these larvæ are never developed. Mœurs des Fourmis, 84. note 1.
[536] II. viii. 16.
[537] Linn. Trans. vii. t. ii. f. 5, 6.
[538] Wien. Verz. I possess a cocoon of this kind from New Holland, even now quite solid, and retaining its form. No silk appears to have been used in its composition.
[539] Reaum. i. 579.
[540] Ibid. vi. 368.
[541] Ibid. i. 542.
[542] Ibid. 543.
[543] Linn. Trans. i. 196.
[544] Reaum. i. 545—.
[545] Pyral. 8. 3. t. iii. f. 16.
[546] See above, Vol. I. p. 172—.
[547] Reaum. ii. 491.
[548] Reaum i. 540.
[549] See above, Vol. I. 167—. II. 264.
[550] See above, Vol. I. p. 67.
[551] N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat. xvi. 269—. xxii. 76.
[552] Reaum. iv. 32. The author here quoted asserts that the grub of Ichneumon Larvarum L. retains its skin, which, he says, is so transparent that the form of the nymph can be seen through it. Ibid. ii. 447. De Geer, however, found that this really did cast its skin, which is so transparent as to be scarcely visible, by pushing it gradually towards the anus, where it soon dries up and cannot then be discovered. De Geer ii. 893—. According to Rösel the same circumstance attends the transformation of Coccinella renipustulata Illig. (C. Cacti Ent. Brit.), which at first perplexed him not a little. It is probable that in this case the retention of the skin was accidental; for some of the grubs of a Mycetophila, the transformation of which I observed, became pupæ within their last skin, while others wholly disengaged themselves from it. The cause of this variation, I conjectured, arose from the former being too weak to extricate themselves from the skin.
[553] See above, Vol. I. p. 238. Byrrhus Musæorum belongs to this genus.
[554] N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat. ii. 161.
[555] Pezold. 102.
[556] De Geer i. 339—.
[557] Reaum. ii. 423, and iii. 497.
[558] Ibid. i. 605.
[559] De Geer ii. 941.
[560] Brahm Insek. 72.
[561] Reaum. ubi supra.
[562] In the Hemiptera the male Cocci (Reaum. iv. 32.) and Aleyrodes (Ibid. ii. 311.) belong to the second division.
[563] The terms larva and pupa, applied to the insects of this subdivision, are perhaps not strictly proper.
[564] The larvæ and pupæ of many of the homopterous section of Hemiptera differ often from the imago, not only in their fore-legs (Plate XVI. Fig. 4.), but also in other respects. I have the larva of a Centrotus from Canada, given me by Dr. Bigsby, which has a long anal process or tail.
[566] iii. 135.
[567] The pupæ of Cassida, Imatidium, &c. seem to vary somewhat from this type, the upper part being neither membranous nor exhibiting distinctly the form of the inclosed imago.
[568] The following arrangement of pupæ is perhaps in some respects better than that above given. But it is scarcely possible to propose one free from objections.
Lamarck divides the pupæ of insects that undergo a metamorphosis into three kinds, which he names—Chrysalis, Mumia, and Nympha.
i. Chrysalis. Under this denomination he includes all inactive pupæ inclosed in an opaque puparium which entirely conceals them. These he further subdivides into two kinds.
1. Chrysalis signata. This term is synonymous with the Pupa obtecta of Linné, or the Chrysalis of Lepidoptera and some Diptera.
2. Chrysalis dolioloides. Equivalent to the Pupa coarctata Linn. peculiar to those Diptera that assume this state in the skin of the larva.
ii. Mumia. All inactive pupæ which are covered by a transparent skin, through which all the parts of the inclosed imago may be seen, subdivided also into two.
1. Mumia coarctata. Corresponding with the Pupa incompleta Linn., which includes the Coleoptera and most of the Hymenoptera.
2. Mumia pseudonympha, confined to the Pupa of Phryganea and some others. This might be named Pupa subincompleta.
iii. Nympha. Under this denomination are included all insects that undergo only a partial metamorphosis, and are active in their pupa state, corresponding with the Pupa semicompleta Linn. and also subsemicompleta MacLeay. See Anim. sans Vertebr. iii. 285—.
M. Latreille has started an ingenious idea on this subject with regard to these kinds of metamorphosis, which comprehends both larva and pupa under a distinct denomination: as thus—
[569] N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat. vii. 57.
[570] De Geer ii. 105.
[571] Reaum. ii. 428—.
[572] Swamm. Bibl. Nat. Engl. Tr. ii. 32. t. xli. f. 2. Comp. Reaum. iv. t. xxv. f. 1.
[573] Ibid. i. 144.
[574] Reaum. i. 355.
[575] N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat. ubi sup. 59.
[576] Plate XVI. Fig. 14. N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat. vii. 59.
[577] Ins. Surinam. t. xliv.
[578] De Geer v. 47. t. ii. f. 29-31.
[579] In the pupa of Hydrophilus piccus (Lesser L. t. ii. f. 13, 14), the arrangement of the parts is nearly the same, but the tarsi are not reflexed.
[580] Ibid. f. 9, 10. De Geer ii. t. xxxii. f. 5. Reaum. v. t. xxxvi. f. 14.
[581] Reaum. Ibid. t. ii. f. 9.
[582] The legs of Tipula replicata L. are placed in a similar way. De Geer vi. t. xx. f. 12. l.
[583] Rös t. 81.
[584] Ibid. t. 95.
[585] De Geer vi. 237. t. xiv. f. 8.
[586] Reaum. v. t. ii. f. 7. The anal and ventral spines of Tipula replicata are also remarkable. De Geer vi. t. xx. f. 14.
[587] De Geer Ibid. 377. t. xxiii. f. 8, 9. n. Reaum. v. 42. t. vi. f. 9. m n.
[588] The caterpillar consists of twelve segments (Lyonnet t. i. f. 4, 5), excluding the head; on each of which, except the 2d, 3d, and 12th, there is a pair of spiracles. The chrysalis usually exhibits an analogy to this structure, though the first, second, and last pair of spiracles are more or less obsolete in most.
[589] De Geer ii. 847. t. xxix. f. 7. a b.
[590] Animaux sans Vertebres, iii. 287.
[591] N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat. vii. 57.
[592] Sepp ii. t. i. f. 4. t. ii. f. 4. t. iv. f. 5.
[595] Ins. Surinam. t. lx. It is singular that the chrysalis of its congener, Morpho Teucer, which she figures t. xxiii., exhibits no such process. The larvæ also widely differ.
[597] Sepp ii. t. iii. f. 5.
[598] Sepp i. t. vii. f. 5.
[599] De Insectis, ed. Lister. t. 1.
[600] Ins. Surinam. t. liii.
[601] Sepp i. t. ii. f. 6.
[602] N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat. vii. 60.
[603] Ibid. 57.
[604] See above, Vol. I. p. 131.
[605] Reaum. ii. 158. t. viii. f. 4, 5.
[606] Lesser L. i. 160. note. t. ii. f. 19.
[607] N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat. xxvi. 165. Reaum. i. 347. Rösel says this is present only in some individuals. I. ii. 47.
[609] Ins. Surinam. t. iii.
[610] De Geer ii. 433. t. viii. f. 4. t.
[611] See above, Vol. II. p. 300.
[612] This description was taken from a puparium in my own cabinet; it is similarly described by De Geer i. 490. t. vii. f. 2.
[614] Kliemann Beitrage, 304.
[616] Von Scheven in Naturf. stk. xx. 64. t. ii. f. 4.
[617] Plate XVII. Fig. 2. Lesser L. t. ii. f. 26.
[618] Plate XVII. Fig. 1. Lesser L. t. ii. f. 24, 25.
[619] Whether M. Meigen has separated this fly generically from others, I am not aware: in my catalogue it stands under the name of Tyrophaga.
[620] Reaum. iii. 376. t. xxxi. f. 7.
[621] Ibid. iv. 318. t. xxiii. f. 1-4. xxv. f. 1.
[622] Ins. Surinam. t. xxix.
[623] Ins. Surinam. t. xxxii. Lister imitated the gilding of Chrysalises by putting a small piece of a black gall in a strong decoction of nettles: this produced a scum, which when left on cup-paper, he says, will exquisitely gild it.—Ray's Letters, 87. 90.
[624] Beitrage, 181.
[625] Sepp. pt. ii. t. ii. f. 4.
[626] Rösel. I. i. 61. ii. 5.
[627] Reaum. i. 383.
[628] Lister's Goedart. 122.
[629] Reaum. ii. 10—.
[630] Ibid. 24.
[631] This is a legend of Virgil, of which an account is given in The Lay of the Last Minstrel, Note xv. 12mo ed. 1822, p. 257.
[632] Haworth Lepidopt. Britann. i. 125. An instance is recorded in Scriba's Journal, in which a pupa was not disclosed until the fourth year. B. i. st. iii. 222. Pezold. 170.
[633] Marsham in Linn. Trans. x. 402.
[634] Meinecken found, that of several pupæ of Saturnia pavonia, some kept all winter in a room heated daily by a stove, and others in a cold chamber, some of both parcels appeared in March (none earlier), and some of both had not appeared in July, though evidently healthy. Naturf. viii. 143.
[635] The exclusion of certain moths, &c. from the pupa is probably regulated by the time their eggs require to be hatched, and the appearance of the leaves that constitute their appropriate food.
[636] Mr. Marsham makes a similar observation in Linn. Trans., ubi supr.
[638] The appearance of them sometimes continues to near the end of the month: it began on the 19th, when Reaumur observed them. vi. 480. 488.
[639] Bibl. Nat. E. Transl. i. 103—.
[640] Reaum. vi. 486.
[641] Brahm. 423. 421.
[642] Naturf. xxi. 75.
[643] Reaum. ii. 423.
[644] De Geer ii. 370. It is not certain, however, that De Geer did not, in this instance, mistake the winter habitation of a larva for a cocoon intended to shelter the future chrysalis; since Lyonnet informs us that they spin a habitation to pass the winter in. Traité Anatomique, &c. 9.
[645] De Geer i. 490. t. vii. f. 3, 4.
[646] Œuv. ii. 1.
[647] De Geer v. 229.
[650] I. iv. 101.
[651] Reaum. vi. 407.
[652] Haworth Lepidopt. Britann. i. 127.
[653] De Geer ii. 566.
[654] Reaum. iii. t. xlv. f. 12-14.
[655] For this whole account, see Reaum. iv. Mem. viii.
[656] Ibid. 472.
[657] See above, p. 255—. and Vol. II. p. 301—.
[658] Bonnet, Œuv. ii. 169.
[659] Bonnet, Œuvr. ii. 207.
[660] Rös. I. iv. 209. t. lxiii. ccxii.
[662] Bonnet, Œuvr. ii. 229.
[663] De Geer ii. 477.
[664] Sepp. iv. t. xi. f. 8.
[665] Plate XVII. Fig. 5. N.B. Sepp's figure represents the exterior funnel; and this, which exhibits the cocoon divided longitudinally, the interior one, or dome.
[666] Rös. I. iv. 31.
[667] Naturf. viii. 133.
[668] De Bombyc. 29.
[669] Reaum. i. 624.
[670] Trans. of the Society of Arts, vii. 131.
[671] Reaum. ubi supr.
[672] ii. 359.
[673] Linn. Trans. vii. 35.
[674] Pezold. 171.
[675] Lyonnet 16.
[676] Some Notice of the Insect which destroys the Locust-trees, 70. This Memoir is in some American periodical work, of which I have not the title.
[677] Huber Fourmis 82.
[680] De Geer ii. 519.
[681] Reaum. iv. 610—.
[682] Ibid. v. 30—. t. v. f. 1-10. See above, p. 153—.
[683] See above, Vol. II. p. 346.
[684] Reaum. i. Mem. ult. De Geer i. 73. Swamm. Bibl. Nat. i. 184.
[685] Swamm. Ibid.
[686] Jurine Hymenopt. 16.
[687] iv. 342. Herold also attributes the rapid expansion of the wing to the flow of an aqueous fluid, which he calls blood, into the nervures, the orifices of which open into the breast. Entwickelungs. der Schmetterl. 101. sect. 106.—M. Chabrier, in his admirable Essai sur le Vol des Insectes (Mém. du Mus. 4ieme, ann. 325), having observed a fluid in the interior of the nervures of the wings of insects, thinks it probable that they can introduce it into them and withdraw it at their pleasure: the object of which, he conjectures, is either to strengthen them and facilitate their unfolding, or to vary the centre of gravity in flight, and increase the intensity of the centrifugal force.
[688] Ibid. 340.
[689] Brahm. Insek. ii. 423.
[690] Reaum. vi. 505—. t. xlvi. f. 9. Comp. De Geer ii. 627—.
[691] Reaum. iii. 378.
[692] Ibid. 385.
[693] Insects of the beetle tribe, especially such as undergo their metamorphosis under ground, in the trunks of trees, &c., are often a considerable time after quitting the puparium before their organs acquire the requisite hardness to enable them to make their way to the surface. Thus, the newly-disclosed imago of Cetonia aurata remains a fortnight under the earth, and that of Lucanus Cervus, according to Rösel, not less than three weeks.
[694] See above, Vol. I. p. 34—.
[695] Jurine Hymenopt. 9. Note 1.
[696] Oliv. N. i. t. i. f. 1. c. f. N. 3. t. iii. f. 22. a b c. t. v. f. 33. t. vi. f. 5. t. xiii. f. 124. a b.
[697] Reaum. vi. 423.
[698] Kirby Mon. Ap. Angl. ii. t. xvi. f. 12, 13. t. xvii. f. 10-12.
[699] Reaum. iv. 393.
[700] See above, Vol. I. 473—.
[701] De Geer vii. 304.
[702] Reaum. iv. 30.
[703] Ibid. t. iv. f. 15.
[705] De Geer iii. 25.
[706] Linn. Trans. iv. 54—.
[707] ix. 65. n. 110.
[708] vi. 423.
[709] Entomologische, &c. 224.
[710] De Geer ii. 847. 850. Jurine Hymenopt. 100.
[711] Kirby Mon. Ap. Angl. ii. 296. 264.
[712] Ibid. ii. 142—. 144, 147, 148, &c.
[713] A remarkable anomalous exception to this rule sometimes occurs in the female of D. marginalis, which has smooth elytra like the male (Gyll. Ins. Suec. i. 467-). I have this variety from the Rev. Mr. Dalton, of Copgrove, Yorkshire.
[714] De Geer i. t. vii. f. 11.
[715] See above, Vol. II. 125, Note [135].
[716] Melitta ** c. Kirby Mon. Ap. Angl. i. 140.
[717] Ibid. t. iv. f. 10. a. b. f. 14.
[718] Ibid. t. xiii. f. 20. a.
[719] Kirby Mon. Ap. Angl. i. t. xi. Apis **. d. 2. α. β. f. 18 a. b. c. d.
[720] Coquebert Illustr. Icon. i. t. vi. f. 6.
[721] Kirby Mon. Ap. Angl. i. Apis **. c. 1. α. **. c. 1. β. **. c. 2. α. **. c. 2. β. **. c. 2. γ. **. c. 2. δ.
[722] Ibid. t. viii. f. 28. f. g.
[723] Christ. Hymenopt. t. iv. f. 3. b.
[724] Kirby Mon. Ap. Angl. i. t. iv. Melitta **. c. f. 1. a.
[725] Scheven Naturfors. stk. xx. 65. t. ii. f. 4. Compare Ibid. x. 101.
[726] Reaum. iii. t. xv. f. 18, 19.
[727] Oliv. no. 84. Brentus, t. i. f. 1. b. c. t. ii. f. 17. a. b.
[728] Oliv. no. 3. Scarabæus, t. xviii. f. 169.
[729] Oliv. Scarabæus, t. xii. f. 114. t. xv. f. 138. a.
[730] Ibid. t. v. f. 33.
[731] Ibid. t. xii. f. 112.
[732] Linn. Trans. vi. t. xix. f. 12. t. xx. f. 2.
[733] Oliv. no. 57. Tenebrio, t. i. f. 2.
[734] Oliv. ubi supr. No. 3. t. i. f. 1.
[735] Oliv. no. 3. t. iii. f. 20. a.
[736] Ibid. no. 55. Diaperis, t. i. f. 3.
[737] Oliv. Scarabæus, t. xx. f. 185.
[738] As Dynastes Actæon, Elephas, Typhon, &c. differ from D. Hercules, &c., not only in their general habits, horns, &c., but also in their maxillæ and labium,—the former in D. Actæon being simple, and in D. Hercules toothed, and the labium of the first bilobed at the apex, and in the last entire and acute,—according to the modern system they ought, therefore, to be considered as distinct genera. I would restrict the name Dynastes to D. Hercules and its affinities: D. Actæon, &c. I would call Megasoma.
[739] Oliv. Scarabæus, t. xvii. f. 156.
[740] Ibid. t. viii. f. 63.
[741] This insect is beautifully figured in M. Latreille's Insectes sacres des Egyptiens, f. 11. See Luke xi. 15. Heb. בעלןבול Dominus stercoris.