Beading.—A tool for scraping beading, reeds, and the like, can be made by filing the reverse of the shape required on the edge of a piece of saw-blade steel, taken from a broken saw or scraper, and inserting this blade in a kerf sawed in the end of a piece of wood (Fig. 465). To change the position of the blade, one or both of the screws can be loosened and then tightened after the blade has been adjusted. This tool is pushed forward with both hands, much like a scraper, the shoulder of the block bearing against the edge of the board as in using the gauge (Fig. 466). Tools for this purpose can be bought.

It usually produces the best effect not to carry this beading to the extreme ends of an edge, but to stop a short distance from the ends and with a chisel cut the beads to a square and abrupt end (Fig. 305). See Plane.

Bending Wood.—To bend a piece (without steaming or boiling) which is to be fastened so that but one side will show, make a series of saw-cuts of equal depth (Fig. 467) across the piece, and partly through it, on the back side (the side which will not show), first running a gauge line along the edge (see Gauge), that the cuts may be of equal depth. This will practically, so far as bending is concerned, make the piece thinner, and it can readily be bent and fastened in position. The nearer together and the deeper the cuts are the more the piece can be bent—that is, up to the breaking-point. Hot water can be used on the face side. Such curves can sometimes be strengthened by driving wedges, with glue, into the saw-kerfs after the piece is bent to the desired curve (Fig. 468).

To make a small piece of wood pliable, so that it will bend to any reasonable extent (which, however, depends much upon the kind of wood), soak it for some time in boiling water, when it can usually be bent into the desired shape. It must be securely held in position until the moisture has entirely left it, or it will spring back to (or towards) its original shape. This drying will take from several hours to several days, according to the size of the piece and the condition of the atmosphere. There is almost always a tendency to spring back a little towards the original shape, so it is well to bend a piece a little more than you wish it to remain, except where it is to be fastened so that it cannot spring back.

Wood which naturally bends easily (particularly thin pieces) can often be made pliable enough by simply soaking in cold water, but hot water is usually more effective. Anything which you cannot manage with the hot water you can take to a mill or a ship-yard and have steamed in a regular steam-chest, which is really nothing, in principle, but a big wooden or iron box, with a steam-pipe running into it, in which the pieces are kept until the steam has made them pliable. Wood is now bent for many purposes by "end pressure," but this is impracticable for the amateur.

To bend the ends of pieces like skis, hockies, etc., a big kettle or common wash-boiler full of boiling water can be used. An apparatus for long sticks, as ribs for a canoe, can be made with a piece of iron pipe of suitable size. Plug one end tightly and stick it firmly in the ground, so that the pipe is fixed in a slanting direction. Put water in the pipe, build a fire underneath, put the sticks in the pipe, stuff a rag loosely in the upper end and the apparatus will be in working order (Fig. 469).

You must often have some sort of form or mould for bending the piece and for holding it while drying. For some kinds of bending, where there is no occasion to be accurate, you can often bend a piece around some corner or common object, as a barrel, log, etc., and tie it in place until dry, or fasten it with cleats, but for nice work you should make a form or mould. If you wish to bend ribs, for instance, which should be accurate in shape, you can cut a piece of board or plank to fit the concave side of the desired curve. Fasten this piece upon any flat surface, as an old plank, and bore holes for wooden pins around the curve at such a distance from the pattern piece or mould that the piece to be bent can be firmly wedged against it, as shown in Fig. 470; or you can attach blocks instead of pins—any arrangement by which the bent piece can be wedged in place. A strap of hoop iron or other metal or even a thin piece of wood can be placed outside of the stick to be bent, to prevent the wood splitting or splintering on the outside, as it is liable to do if bent much, unless of good quality and straight grain, but there is no need of doing this in many cases.

Another way is to have the mould or form in two parts, as the two parts of a board or plank through which the curve has been sawed (Fig. 471). The piece to be bent is put between the two forms, which are then pressed together by clamps, wedges, or a lever. This is a good way for short pieces which cannot easily be bent, or which do not readily cling to the required curve.

Another form of bending-mould is shown (an inverted view) in Fig. 472. In this case the pieces to be bent are held in place by easily made clamps.

A simple way to make a form for bending strips is to cut the curve out of a piece of plank, or boards nailed together (Fig. 473). The end of the strip is then caught against the cleat and the piece bent around the curve. If it tends to spring off the curve, you must contrive some way to clamp, wedge, or even tie it in place. As a piece must be left on the form until dry and set, if you have a number to bend, it may be better to make a form wide enough to bend them all at once. Take any boards, or build a curved addition on the end of a box, and contrive a wider form on the same principle (Fig. 474).

For ribs, and the like, the stock should be got out so that the annual layers will be at right angles to the direction of the nails with which the pieces are to be fastened, or parallel with the curved sides of the pieces.

Bevel.—This is similar to the square, but with a movable blade which can be set at any angle. When permanently fixed at an angle of 45°, it is called a mitre-square. The bevel is useful, not merely to mark any desired angle, but to repeat some angle already formed, to which you apply it, moving the blade until it fits the angle, when the tool can be applied to another piece and the angle repeated. The directions about holding the head of the square close to the edge apply also to the use of the bevel (see Square).

To obtain an angle of 45° with the bevel, place it against the inside edge of the large steel square (Fig. 475), setting the blade at such an angle that it will intercept equal distances on both arms of the square.

On this same principle, for other angles, observe the figures intercepted by the blade, as shown in Fig. 476. Note that for this angle the figures are 2 and 4, and you can get the angle again at any time by setting the bevel at those figures. You can also set the bevel by laying off the required angle with compasses on a straight-edged board, to which the bevel can be applied. The angle should be so laid out on the board that it will not be necessary to try to set the point of the compasses exactly at the edge, which is of course impossible. See Bevelling.

Bevelling.—To bevel the edge of a piece with the chisel, draw-knife, spoke-shave, plane, or even knife, first mark parallel lines to work to with a pencil-gauge (see Gauge) rather than a spur-gauge, so as not to leave a scratch to disfigure the work after the bevel or chamfer is cut (Figs. 477 and 485). Then pare the edge down gradually to these lines, or prepare the way by first scoring the wood with cuts (Fig. 615), being sure to trim off in the direction of the grain; but in bevelling both end and side, as in Fig. 478, first cut the end, because of possible chipping at the corner, and in cutting the end you can work from each corner towards the centre. In paring a bevel across the grain, push the chisel as shown in Fig. 479, as it is the easiest and cleanest way to cut, and prevents splintering.

A simple bevel (Figs. 477 and 478) is usually best made with the plane, whenever there is room to use it. Plane bevels in end wood from both edges and you can often slant the plane to good advantage like the chisel in Fig. 479. See also Chamfering.

Bit-Brace or Bit-Stock.—This tool requires no description. The ratchet brace is useful for boring in awkward places where it is difficult to use a common bit-stock. There is also a contrivance for extending the bit-brace to bore in places which cannot be reached by the common brace alone, but this you will seldom require. An angular bit-stock, with a "universal angle" adjustment, is useful. By this the bit can be pointed in different directions, while the bit-stock is turned continuously in the ordinary way, thus enabling a hole to be conveniently bored in an out-of-the-way corner. See Boring.

Bits.—The auger-bit (the sizes of which are arranged by sixteenths of an inch) so commonly used with the bit-brace, consists, at the cutting end, of a spur, two scoring-nibs, and two cutting-lips. You will see from Fig. 480 that the spur a, acting like a gimlet point or a screw (which it is), starts the bit by drawing it into the wood so that the scoring-nibs b make a circular cut around the circumference. As this cut deepens, the cutting-lips c slice away the wood to be removed in the form of shavings, which are brought to the surface as the boring proceeds.

This bit can be sharpened with a file, the scoring-nibs being sharpened from the inside, lest they be made to score a circle too small for the rest of the bit, while the cutting-lips are filed from the under side.

The centre-bit is a useful tool, particularly for very thin stock. The spear-like point a (Fig. 481), acting as a centre, the point b cuts a deep ring, and the edge c, which is bent so as to form a flat chisel, scoops out the pieces of wood, and so a round and smooth hole is made. This bit does not cut very well with the grain. It can be sharpened with a small oil-stone. It is well to bore a trial hole with this bit in a piece of waste wood when exactness is required, because the spur is not exactly in the centre, so that the hole cut is a trifle wider than the diameter of the bit.

The expansion-bit has an adjustable contrivance that enables it to bore holes of various sizes, but such tools are hardly necessary for beginners, though very convenient and often used by carpenters.

The gimlet-bit is a common form, but is easily dulled and bent and is likely to split delicate work. The quill-bit is excellent, except for end grain. Shell-bit, gouge-bit, pod-bit, spoon-bit, duck's-bill-bit, etc., are names applied to simple tools good for boring small holes. They are easily sharpened with a stone, work quickly and leave a smooth hole, but do not cut so well in end grain. They are not as much in use as formerly, the twist-drill taking their place for many purposes.

Reamers, or tapering bits (half-round, square, octagonal, conical), are useful to enlarge holes and occasionally to make them conical. Reamers for metal are also useful.

For other forms of boring implements, see Awls and Twist-drill. See also Boring and Countersink.

Block-Plane.—See Plane.

Boards or Planks, Laying Exposed.—In laying boards or planks to be exposed to the weather, place them (unless they are from the middle of the tree) so as to have the outer side exposed—that is, the side farthest from the heart should be put outside or uppermost. If put the other way the action of the atmosphere, water, etc., will tend to separate and loosen the layers and fibres (Fig. 482).

Boring.—In boring with the bit-brace, after the bit has gone a short distance into the wood, stop and, keeping the brace in position, test carefully from in front and from one side to see whether the bit is at right angles to the surface. Repeat this test and alter the position of the brace as many times as may be necessary until you are sure that the bit is going through at the right angle. A common way to do this is to stand squarely in front of the work and judge by the eye whether the bit is at right angles with the work, and then to stand at either side at right angles to the first position and judge of the angle again. The direction of the bit can be tested more accurately by applying the square. Few people can bore accurately without some such test.

Some workmen rest the chin on the left hand on top of the handle of the brace, to steady it (Fig. 483), and to increase the pressure, and sometimes the shoulder is applied.

To remove a bit from the wood, give the brace a turn or two backward, which will loosen the spur, and then either pull the bit straight out, if it can be done easily without turning the brace, or, as you pull it out, keep turning the brace as if boring, thus bringing out the chips, which, if you remove the bit by turning the brace backward, will be left in the hole.

In boring through a board or timber, watch to see when the spur of the bit begins to come through on the other side; when it does, turn the piece over and bore in from that side, or clamp a piece of waste wood on the other side and bore right through into it. Either way will prevent splintering or a ragged or "burred" edge, where the bit leaves the wood.

In boring a hole of any depth with the grain, i.e., in the end of a piece of wood, withdraw the bit, after it has entered the wood a short distance, to clear the chips from the hole, reinsert, bore, and withdraw again, and continue in this way until you reach the required depth. This will save injuring the bit, and will make the boring easier.

In boring with small bits, particularly when there is danger of splitting, as with the gimlet-bit, draw out the bit and chips once in a while.

When the position of a hole must be exact on both sides of the wood it is well to mark the position accurately on each side and bore from each side until the holes meet.

Frequently holes must not be bored through a piece, but must stop at a certain depth. Suppose you have to make a dozen holes 2" deep. Take a wooden tube if you have one, or bore a hole through a block of wood of such length that when pressed against the jaws of the brace two inches of the end of the bit will project beyond the tube or block (Fig. 484). Then bore until the end of the tube touches the surface of the wood, when the hole will, of course, be 2" deep. Metal attachments can be bought for this purpose. See Awl, Bits, Twist-drill.

To cut a hole larger than any bit you have, bore a series of smaller holes just within the circumference of the desired circle, and trim to the line with the gouge or finish with keyhole or compass-saw.

Bow-Saw.—See Saw.

Brad-awl.—See Awl.

Bruises, To Take Out.—Small bruises in wood can be taken out by wetting the place with warm water, or even with cold water, and rubbing down the grain with sandpaper if necessary. If that is not sufficient, a hot iron, as a flat-iron, held near the bruise, the latter being covered with wet blotting paper or several thicknesses of brown paper, will often remove a quite large dent. The operation can be repeated until it has no further effect.

Brushes.—It is well to have a brush of some sort for cleaning off work, the bench, etc. A sash brush is good.

For most of your painting, shell acing, etc., you will usually get along better with small flat brushes than with large round ones, except for very coarse work. Those with flattened handles are convenient. From one to two inches in diameter will usually be large enough, unless for such work as painting the outside of a house, when something larger will save time. For painting small or narrow surfaces, the brushes used for "drawing" sashes are good, and for drawing lines "pencil" brushes will be required. A good brush for glue can be made by soaking one end of a piece of rattan in hot water and then pounding the softened part, when the fibres will separate, making a stiff brush.

Bull-Nosed Plane—See Plane.

Calipers.—Calipers, which are "inside" or "outside," according to whether they are to find the diameter of a hole or the outside diameter of an object, are very important in some work, as turning, but, though very useful at times, are not nearly as important for the work of the beginner as compasses.

Carving-Chisel.—See Carving Tools.

Carving Tools.—A few carving tools are often very useful for general wood-work. It is convenient to have these carving tools fitted in handles of a different pattern from your other tools. An octagonal shape is good. A carving-chisel is very useful in working on odd-shaped pieces, because the cutting edge is bevelled on both sides. A carver's skew chisel will be, perhaps, more generally useful for your work than one ground squarely across. A parting-tool, sometimes called a "V tool," is occasionally convenient, though hardly a necessity for most plain work. A small veining-tool (like a very small gouge) is often useful.

Centre-Bit.—See Bits.

Chalk-Line.—See Marking.

Chamfering.—A chamfer is the surface formed by cutting away the angle made by two faces of a piece of wood.

In cutting the ends of a stop-chamfer (Fig. 485), take care not to cut quite down to the line at first, as you will be very apt to cut a little too deep and leave a tool mark which cannot be removed. In the case of long stop-chamfers, use the plane whenever you can, so far as it can be used without hitting the wood at the ends. The draw-knife can often be used to remove the wood, being followed by the plane. The plane can be used slantingly, so as to cut nearer the ends, and a bull-nosed plane will cut nearer still, but the extreme ends will have to be trimmed to shape with the chisel or other tool. See also Bevelling and Paring.

Chisel.—The firmer-chisel is meant for light hand-work, for paring off wood and trimming to shape, and can be used for light mortising, though the mortise-chisel is intended for that purpose. It is often an advantage to have the long edges of such a chisel bevelled on the same side as the cutting basil, as it can be used more conveniently in some places. Taking off the corner of the basil when grinding, often answers the purpose.

The framing-chisel is stouter than the firmer, has a stronger handle to stand heavy blows of the mallet, and is meant, as the name indicates, for framing, mortising, and other heavy work.[41] See Mortising.

The straight-bent chisel is shaped as shown in Fig. 487, and is very useful for cleaning out corners, grooves, and other places where the common firmer-chisel cannot be used to advantage.

A skew-chisel is simply ground slanting, instead of squarely across, and is useful for corners and odd work. See Carving Tools.

There are other forms, seldom needed by the amateur, as the corner-chisel, which is used for cutting or paring angles and corners.

Those chisels and gouges which have the handles fitted into sockets at the upper end of the iron, instead of the iron being stuck into the handle, and with ferrules at the upper end where they are struck by the mallet are, of course, the strongest for heavy work, although the lighter handles are just as good for light work.

Do not let your left hand get in front of the edge of the chisel while working, for the tool may slip and give you a bad cut, and in most cases the left hand should be kept on the lower part of the chisel to help control it, which is not easily done with one hand. In some cases, as in paring the edge of a piece directly downward towards the bench, it may be proper to hold the work with the left hand and use the chisel with the right; but as a rule, particularly for beginners, first see that the work is securely fastened or held from slipping by vise, clamp, or other expedient, and then keep the left hand on the chisel, which will steady and guide the tool, and, incidentally, prevent the hand from being cut. See Paring and Sharpening.

Circular-plane.—See Plane.

Clamps.—Long clamps (cabinet-clamps), shown in the accompanying illustrations, are extremely useful in making glued joints and in various clamping operations. Many, of different lengths, are to be found in wood-working shops. Although much work can be accomplished without them, if you can afford a pair or more of medium length, or longer, they will be very useful. Wooden clamps will answer every purpose, although steel ones are better, but more expensive.

To clamp two or more flat pieces together, as in making a "glue-joint," or in clamping framework, as a door or picture-frame, lay the work across the horses, which should be so placed that their tops will be as nearly level, or in the same plane, as possible, and apply the clamps as shown in Fig. 488, always putting pieces of waste wood between the edges of the work and the clamps. Place the clamps so that either the flat side of the bar or the corner, as shown, will lie against the surface of the work, thus keeping it from bending towards the bar when the screw is tightened. The number of clamps to be used must depend on the size of the work, but there is not usually much danger of an amateur's work being clamped too securely.[42]

If you have to glue a flexible strip, put a stiff piece outside between it and the clamp to distribute the pressure.

You will often find by sighting across the surface of the work as you tighten the clamps, particularly in the case of door-frames, picture-frames, and the like, that the surface is winding. When this happens, move one or more corners of the work up or down, as the case may be, in the clamps, and thus take out the winding. A little experimenting will show how to do this. In the case of framed work, such as doors or picture-frames, test the angles with the square as soon as the joints are brought to a bearing. If the angles are not right, as will often be the case, move one end of either one or both of the clamps to the right or left, as the case may be, and you can easily change the angle until the square shows it to be right, when the screws can be tightened and the joints should close accurately. In clamping nearly all kinds of "case" work, such as bookcases, cabinets, boxes, and the like, these directions about moving the clamps until the angles are correct and the work free from winding are applicable.

In such cases as that shown in Fig. 488, waste no time in trying to get the surfaces exactly flush with each other at the joint before partially tightening the clamps, lest the glue become set. Any slight alteration can best then be made by tapping with the hammer near the joint, whenever either piece needs to be raised or lowered, putting a block under the hammer if the dent will not be removed by planing (see Gluing). The clamps can then be screwed tighter.

In such cases as gluing the joints of a box, put stout blocks or cleats over the joints before tightening the clamps (Fig. 489), to distribute the pressure. This applies to all cases of clamping where the pieces to be glued are not heavy enough to resist the change of shape from the pressure of the clamps, and pieces of waste wood are almost always required in any case to prevent bruising of the work.

You can contrive home-made clamps out of any strong pieces of wood of suitable length, by nailing or screwing a block at each end (Fig. 490), when the work can be tightly wedged to a close bearing by driving home the double wedge shown, using, if necessary, one or more blocks, B, when you use the clamp for smaller work than that for which it was made. By keeping such clamps for future use, you will soon have enough to answer very well until you can afford to buy the regular cabinet-clamps.

On the same principle, a simple clamp, derived from the Orient, can be made by boring a series of holes in two stout strips—just as the holes are bored in the sides of a ladder, but nearer together. The work to be glued is laid on one of these strips in the same way as shown in Fig. 490. The other strip is then placed directly above and stout pins put through corresponding holes outside of the work, which can then be wedged against the pins in the way just shown.

Another way, which can be applied to many cases, is to put a stout cord, doubled, around the work, and inserting a stick between the two parts of the string, turn it around until, the doubled cord thus becoming shortened, the parts of the work are drawn together. This can only be done where there is room to swing the stick around, as, for example, to tighten the rounds of a chair by drawing the legs together (Fig. 491).

You can often apply pressure, when no more convenient means are at hand, by making use of the elasticity of a board or pole. Suppose, for example, you need to press two blocks tightly together, as shown in Fig. 492. Place them on the bench or floor and spring in a board or pole between the top of the upper block and a beam of the floor above, as shown. Of course this board must be a little longer than merely to reach between the two points, as it must be sprung into place bent, when in the effort to straighten itself out again it will cause pressure on the blocks. Pieces should be placed outside the blocks when scarring of the surface is to be avoided. The pressure can be applied in any direction, always supposing that you have something firm to press against.

Pressure can often be obtained by a lever, and many applications of the wedge will suggest themselves in your work. Even if you have a shopful of clamps and hand-screws and vises, these applications of the simple mechanical powers often come into play (see Fig. 390). See also page 71.

Adjustable wood-carver's clamps can be bought for holding pieces in position on the bench, and are useful, but by no means necessary, as common clamps, or various devices, can be used.

The small iron clamps which can be used in place of hand-screws are very useful.

For other suggestions about clamping, see Hand-screws.

Cleating.—A simple way to join two or more pieces of board or plank to make a wider piece is to cleat them. If short, they can be cleated across the ends. This can also be done to keep a single board from warping (Fig. 493). Such a cleat should not be glued unless the width is very slight, on account of the expansion and contraction across the board being so much greater than that lengthways of the cleat (see pages 50-53). Screws (which are best), nails, or dowels should be used, as they will give some play to the pieces. A groove can also be made in the cleat, into which a tongue on the end of the board is fitted. Grooves can be cut in both cleat and board and a tongue or spline inserted (Fig. 494). These are operations best done by machinery. This end-cleating does very well on small work and where the tendency to warp is not too great. For heavier work, as doors, cleats on the side are better, but they are sometimes in the way, and not always desirable on the ground of looks. This is a strong way. Side cleats should be fastened with screws (see Screws) or clinched nails (see Nailing), but not with glue, for the same reason as in the case of end cleats. If the cleat is wide enough, do not put the screws in a straight line, but "alternate" them (Fig. 368). See Jointing and Doors and Panels.

Clinching-Nails.—See Nailing.

Compasses.—Wing compasses, or those with arc and set-screw, are easy to adjust accurately and will not slip, but, whatever kind you get, be sure that the points stay where you put them and do not spring away or wobble around.

The chief uses of this tool are to strike circles, to lay off angles and arcs, to take off measurements from a rule or some object, to lay off measurements, and to "scribe" in places where a gauge can not be used (see Scribing). In using compasses, particularly those which are not set by a screw, hold them and swing them around by the top at the hinged joint, rather than grasp them near the points, which may cause them to move or slip.

Circles or circular arcs can be struck roughly, as you doubtless know, with a string and a nail at the centre, the string being loose around the nail. This method is not very accurate, for obvious reasons, and is only suitable for rough work. A more accurate way is to drive two nails through a strip of wood at a distance apart just equal to the radius of the required circle, one nail being driven into the wood to act as the centre, the other doing the marking (Fig. 495). Instead of the marking nail a hole can be bored for a pencil. You can use a stick of this sort repeatedly by changing the position of the centre nail, or of the marking point. The same can be done with a brad or stout pin and a pencil, using stiff paper, card-board, or zinc instead of a stick. By such expedients you can do a great deal of work without buying compasses.

Compass-Saw.—See Saw.

Corner-Blocks.—These are merely small pieces of pine, or other wood which holds glue well, with two adjacent surfaces at right angles. Hot glue is applied to them and they are rubbed into interior angles of cabinet-work, to strengthen and stiffen the work (Fig. 496), and are very useful for this purpose. They are got out in short pieces, lengthways of the grain, and can be freely used in places where they will not show, as inside of the base-board in Fig. 304. The shape can be varied according to the conditions of the joint. Apply hot glue plentifully, place the block where it is to go, and rub it back and forth several times, when it can be left for the glue to dry.

Corner-Chisel.—See Chisel.

Countersink.—This tool, to be used with the bit-brace, for enlarging the outer part of a hole, thus forming a cavity or depression for receiving the head of a screw (Fig. 497), is quite important, as being much more convenient than to use gouge, chisel, or knife for the purpose. See page 205.

The rose form of countersink is common and good. The Clark double-cut countersink (for wood only) cuts smoothly and is easily sharpened. A countersink for metal is useful.

Cracks, To Stop.—See Holes, To Stop.

Cross-Cut Saw.—See Saw.

Cutting-Pliers.—A pair of these will often be useful in connection with wood-working operations.

Dents, To Take Out.—See Bruises.

Dividers.—See Compasses.

Doors and Panels.—It is important to have some understanding of the theory of framing panels, doors, and the like. The simplest form of door is, of course, a piece of board. This will do for some cases, but it is liable to warp or wind,—if a large door, sometimes to such a degree as to be useless. It is also, if large, liable to swell or shrink so as to be either too loose or too tight, and to break. Cleating can be resorted to (see Cleating), but will not prevent the swelling and shrinking, nor is a cleated door especially ornamental. Besides, there are limits to the width of ordinary boards. Several boards can, however, be joined, edge to edge, and cleated on one side, in which way a large door can be made (Fig. 405), and, if the boards are not fitted too closely together, there may be no trouble caused by the swelling and shrinking. Another way to make a very strong door is to make it of two thicknesses, or layers, one running up and down and the other crossways, or diagonally, the two thicknesses being firmly nailed or screwed together.

All such arrangements are, however, suited for the rougher class of work. When we come to nicer work we must have something more scientific, that will swell and shrink as little as possible and that will look better. So, instead of using a broad flat surface with the boards all running one way, we try to overcome the faults of the flat door by framing the pieces together. Suppose, for a theoretical case, that you make a door like Fig. 498. It will not warp or curl because of the cleats at the top and bottom, but it will swell and shrink in width because there is such a wide surface of board to be affected by the atmosphere, etc., and it may become winding. To lessen these objections the middle part of the board can be removed—all but a strip at each edge (Fig. 499). It will not now swell and shrink much in width because most of the board has been removed. This frame will hold its shape quite well, but it is only a frame, not a door. How can you fill up this open frame to make a door, so as to avoid the trouble about warping, winding, swelling, and shrinking? First, however, as this frame is considerably taller than it is wide, you will readily see that it will be a better arrangement to make it as shown in Fig. 500, with the cross-pieces between the uprights, according to the usual custom in such cases. Suppose, now, that you fill up the open space with a thin board, fastened on one side (Fig. 501), instead of the thick wood which occupied the space at first. The thin board will tend to warp and twist, but, being thin, it will not exert force enough to change the shape of the thick frame. That will prevent the warping and winding from doing much harm. If the screw-holes in this thin piece are reasonably loose, they will allow play enough for the board to expand and contract without putting any strain on the frame. This arrangement does not, however, look very nice on the side to which the board is screwed, though it can be used in some situations. Suppose, finally, that you cut a groove around the inside edge of the frame of the door (Fig. 502) into which this thin board can be fitted loosely, making the groove deep enough to give the board room to shrink and swell in width without dropping out or pushing against the frame. You now have a complete door (Fig. 503), and the warping, winding, swelling, and shrinking will do as little harm as possible. That is all there is to the theory of framing doors, panels, and the like.

The panel should fit closely into the groove, but at the same time be loose enough to slide in and out as it expands and contracts, and should not be wide enough to reach to the bottom of the grooves, but room be left for all possible change in width, as shown in Fig. 504, which shows sections on the line AB. All this is important and has many applications to other things than doors. It is not very uncommon for amateurs, ignorant of these simple principles, to make a door-frame properly, but in fitting the panel to make it the full width of the space from the bottom of one groove to the bottom of the opposite, and also to make it such a snug fit in the groove as to be stuck tight, all with the idea of making such a good fit as to prevent any of the gaping cracks so often seen, but really taking the very course to ruin the work. So important is it that the panel should have play, that it is quite common in nice work to rub wax or tallow around the edge of the panel, lest some of the glue from the joints of the frame should cause it to stick when the frame is glued up. If the panel is badly fitted or stuck, it may buckle or split, or the frame be split or forced apart at the joints.

There are many more elaborate ways of arranging the details of door-framing and panelling (too numerous to be described here, as they will not often be required by the beginner); but if you understand the general principles upon which this simple door is put together, you will understand the principles upon which all panelling is based; and, though you may never do much of it, it is quite important to have a clear understanding of the theory, which is really quite simple—for it has many applications which may save you much trouble, labour, and expense.

The best way to fasten the frame of a door together is by mortise and tenon (see Mortising). This method is almost invariably adopted for house doors. Dowelling is often used for smaller doors, but is inferior to the mortise and tenon.

A common way nowadays to make light doors, and such as are not to be subjected to much strain, is to run the grooves in the stiles through to the ends and cut tongues or short tenons on the ends of the rails to fit these grooves, as shown in Figs. 508 and 509. The whole door, panel and all, can thus be quickly got out and fitted accurately with a circular saw at any wood-working mill, without any hand-work being required, except the smoothing of the pieces and the putting together. In this way you can have a door made for a small sum, smoothing and putting it together yourself. Such a door is not fitted, however, to stand great strain. A house door made in that way would last but a short time. Any heavy door, or one to have much strain, or liable to be slammed, should be framed with mortise and tenon. You can have grooving for a door-frame done at the mill very cheaply and do the mortising yourself, or you can have the mortising done by machine at slight expense. Sometimes the grooving and mortising are combined,—an excellent way (Fig. 592).

In using any of these methods mark distinctly one side of each piece for the "face" and lay out all the work from that side only. If the job is to be taken to a mill, see that the work is all gauged from the face side.