In laying out such work never cut off the stiles (Fig. 505) to length at first. Leave them too long (Fig. 507). The projecting ends will be useful when you knock the frame apart for gluing, after first putting it together to see if everything fits. Besides, the extra length makes the ends stronger for the mortising and less likely to split out. The rails in door-framing and panelling are usually wider than the stiles.

In laying out a door or panelled frame, place the stiles together, with the inside edges uppermost, and square lines across the edges to mark the positions for the rails (Fig. 506). Carry these lines across the faces of the stiles, and mark the rails and stiles with some symbols to indicate the way they are to be fitted together (Fig. 507).

The whole should be put together once to see that everything is right before beginning to glue. Before putting together permanently, the panel and the inside edges of the frame (the edges which come next the panel) must first be planed and smoothed, as this cannot well be done afterwards.

Then fit the panel in the grooves of the rails (Fig. 508), glue the tenons of one end of the rails and the grooves or mortises of the corresponding stile (see Gluing), taking care not to put any glue where it may cause the panel to stick, and fit these parts into place (Fig. 509). Drive the rails home. Then glue and fit the other side of the frame in the same way (Fig. 510)—all being done as quickly as possible. Finally clamp the frame securely (see Clamps). The tongued and grooved joint represented in the accompanying illustrations is not as good as a mortise and tenon, as already stated, but is shown as a simple way for making a light door. Leave the work to dry, and when dry remove the clamps. Saw off the ends of the stiles, and dress off the surface of the frame with the plane (see Plane), after which you can smooth with scraper (see Scraper) and sandpaper (see Sandpaper), and the door or panel will be done. When there is objection to the end of a tenon showing on the outside edge of the stile, and a blind mortise is not desired (see Mortising), the end of the tenon can be cut a little short and the mortise-hole on the edge plugged with a piece of wood, with the grain running the same way as that of the stile. Fit the piece with a very trifling bevel on the edges, glue, drive tightly into place, and when dry smooth off (Fig. 511).

It is hardly worth while to work out the grooving or grooved and tongued joints by hand in these days when it can be so cheaply done by machinery. If obliged to do it by hand, you should have the proper plane for the purpose, as it will be very difficult and slow work otherwise.

A panel is sometimes made flush with either side of the frame, by having a deep rabbet on that side, as in the case of a desk lid, for instance, but this is a form which can well be avoided by the beginner.

Dovetailing.—This is an operation requiring considerable skill to do well and, with the exception of an occasional single dovetail, is not frequently required in the work of the beginner. It is, however, a valuable, workmanlike accomplishment and a thoroughly scientific method, of which the amateur should have some understanding, even if he should never use it.

The common form, such as is used in joining the sides of a box (Fig. 512), can be done as follows: Mark the lines ab (Fig. 513) completely around each piece, at a distance from the end equal to the thickness of the stock. Lay off the lines cd on the end of the piece A. Lay off the oblique lines ec on both sides of the piece. With the back-saw cut by these oblique lines (ec) to the lines ab. Fasten the piece in the vise, end upward, for the sawing. With the chisel, cut out the parts to be removed (marked m), as in cutting a mortise (see Mortising), undercutting very slightly at the end (Fig. 302). When this cutting has been cleanly done, lay the piece A on the end of the piece B in the way it is finally to go, so that the pins just cut will rest exactly in position across the end of the piece B. Mark around the pins, forming the oblique lines fg, from the ends of which square the lines gh on both sides of the piece. Remove the wood as before, taking care not to cut on the wrong sides of the lines which mark the pins, or the dovetailing may come together too loosely. When exactly fitted, apply glue, fit together, and when dry smooth off with plane, scraper, and sandpaper, as may be required.

Lap or drawer dovetailing (Fig. 514) is similar to the preceding form, but the ends of the pins or dovetails on the piece forming the side of the drawer are shortened, and the recesses in the front piece which are to receive them are not cut through. First the side piece A (Fig. 515) is marked and cut on the principle just shown, the pins being shorter; then the piece B is marked and cut to fit.

Practised workmen in dovetailing usually (unless symmetry of the pins is required) determine the bevels for the pins of the first piece by eye, but the beginner would best not attempt to lay off angles or saw by eye.

Mitre dovetailing (blind or secret dovetailing) is used in cases where it is desired to conceal the dovetails, the result looking like an ordinary mitred joint, but this is difficult work for the beginner.

Dovetail Saw.—See Saw (Back-Saw).

Dowelling.—Dowels are merely round sticks of different diameters and usually of hard wood. They can be bought ready made and can be used instead of nails or screws, or instead of mortising, dovetailing, etc. They can be used simply as pins or in many cases can be split and wedged, though the holes must be tapered with a gouge if wedges of much thickness are to be used (Fig. 516).

A common use of dowels is to fasten the frames of tables, chairs, bedsteads, and various domestic articles.

The use of dowels for such purposes is not to be recommended, however, although very common in cheap work and in much work which is not cheap in price. The mortise and tenon is usually much to be preferred. Dowelling, to be really good, has to be skilfully done, while it is a very common way to stick the work together in any manner that will look right on the outside. A dowelled joint is not, as a rule, as scientific a form of construction as a well-planned mortise and tenon,—a statement which you can easily prove for yourself by comparing some article of your grandmother's or great-grandmother's time, and which is still strong, with some modern dowelled chair, which is in so many cases all to pieces and thrown on the woodpile after a short term of service. The gaping joints and dropping apart of modern dowelled work can be seen on every hand. There are some cases, however, where the use of dowels is scientific and just what is required. For example, split dowels, wedged dovetail fashion like wedged tenons, are often very useful (see Mortising).

To find the centres for boring, so that the holes bored in the two pieces shall be in line, you can cut off the heads of some small wire brads so that they will be pointed at both ends. Stick the brads into one piece where the centres of the holes should be. Then press this piece against the other in the position it is to take when the work is done and the brads will of course prick holes in the second piece exactly corresponding to those in the first piece (Fig. 517). Instead of brads, small shot can be used in a similar manner. It is well to take a round-pointed awl, or some such tool, and carefully prick a small hole with it at each of the points marked. This is to start the spur of the bit exactly at the point, as the spur sometimes has a way of working off to one side, so that the hole may not be in exactly the right place. The hardest part, however, is to bore the holes exactly at right angles to the surface, as a slight deviation in either or both may make a bad angle where the two holes meet. You can sometimes lay the pieces flat on the bench and arrange boards or blocks so as to guide the bit straight. The dowels must be thoroughly dry. It is better to have them a trifle too large, rather than too small, for you can easily trim them down to a snug fit. Scratch them lengthways with the toothed-plane, or with the edge of a file. Countersink a little hollow around the opening of each hole (see Countersink), to catch the surplus glue which would otherwise form a rim around the dowel (Fig. 517). Before gluing you should fit the work together once, as it is very awkward to make changes after the gluing is begun. When the parts fit accurately, take the joint apart for gluing. Brush a little glue around the inside of one of the holes, dip one end of a dowel in the glue and drive into place. Wipe off the superfluous glue and repeat the process with each of the dowels in that half of the joint. Leave this to dry a day, or more if you can. Then clean any hardened glue from the dowels and glue them, as before, into the other piece, this time putting glue on the flat surfaces which are to come together. The whole should be firmly clamped and left to dry (see Gluing and Clamps). Dowels are sometimes used in joining the edges of pieces, as in Fig. 518, and in many other joints too numerous to be specified (see Joints and Jointing).

Dowelling looks very easy, but it is usually hard for the beginner to bore the holes straight and to make the pieces fit accurately.

Dowel-Plate.—A steel plate with various holes of such sizes that pins made by driving blocks of wood through them will drive snugly into the holes made by the corresponding bits. This is useful in fitting dowels.

Drawers.—The making of well-fitting and smoothly running drawers is an operation requiring much skill—more skill than can be expected of the beginner, or, in fact, than is attained by the average workman. The beginner should, however, have some understanding of the work, even if he does not attain a high degree of skill in its execution.

Bear in mind that it is much easier to make a drawer which is narrow and long (from front to back) run smoothly than one which is wide across the front, but shallow from front to back.

The more accurately the case which holds the drawers is made, the easier it is to make smoothly running drawers. In good work having more than one drawer, a horizontal frame is fitted beneath each drawer for it to run on. These frames, as well as the whole case, should be free from winding, and it is also important that the stock for the drawers should be true. The front and sides of a drawer should be got out to fit very snugly in their places. The piece for the back is narrower than the front piece, to allow for the bottom (Fig. 521), and is often cut off at the top also. The front, sides, and back can be put together with any suitable form of joint. Dovetailing is by far the best way, but it is difficult for the beginner (see Dovetailing). The joints shown in Fig. 519 can very well be used for ordinary work. These can be quickly made by machinery (see Joints). See also Gluing and Clamps.

A groove for the bottom must be cut on the inside of the front and of the sides (Fig. 520). The insides of the pieces must be smoothed before putting the drawer together. When these parts are fitted, slip the bottom (previously fitted) into place. It should be got out with the grain running across the drawer, or parallel with the front (Fig. 521), and should be glued at the front edge only, the rest being free to swell and shrink, which saves the drawer from injury.

Be sure that the drawer is rectangular (putting in the bottom will assist in this) and free from winding. When put together and dry, carefully smooth the front and the sides. A little trimming with the plane may be required to make the drawer run freely, but care should be taken not to plane away too much. A drawer which is a trifle larger at the back than at the front will run better than if larger in front, as it will be less likely to bind or catch. Small slides, between which the drawer runs, are fastened at each side outside the drawer, at the bottom, and must be adjusted carefully.

Thin blocks or "stops" can be fastened on the cross-frame so that the inside of the drawer front will strike against them when the drawer has been pushed in as far as it should go, or the drawer can be stopped at the back.

A simple way to attach a drawer under a shelf, bench, or table is shown in Fig. 143. The contrivance shown in Figs. 141 and 142 can sometimes be used in place of small drawers.

Bayberry tallow is excellent to rub on the sides of drawers.

Draw-Knife or Draw-Shave.—The draw-knife or draw-shave is very useful for slicing off large pieces and for trimming wood into odd shapes. It can be obtained with folding handles, adjustable at different angles, for use in places which can not be reached by the blade of the old-fashioned draw-knife; but the latter is good enough for all ordinary purposes. Choose a medium-sized or large one. It is in principle simply a knife or very wide and short-bladed chisel with a handle at each end, and can be used with the flat side or the bevel against the wood as the character of the work may require. Having but a short bearing surface to guide its course, it is very prone to follow the grain and cut deeper than you wish, so you must take special pains to cut with the grain, stopping and cutting the other way, whenever necessary. Attachments can be bought for guiding the draw-knife in chamfering and such cases.

The draw-knife can often be best used with an oblique stroke—either drawing it sideways across the work at the same time that you pull it towards you (Fig. 522), or holding it obliquely across the work and pulling it straight towards you (Fig. 523).

It is one of the most dangerous tools if carelessly left lying around, and should be kept hung up out of reach of all small children. See Paring, Bevelling, and Chamfering.

Draw-Shave.—See Draw-knife.

Drill.—Drills for metal only are often useful to the wood-worker, but the one most important for the amateur is the twist-drill. See Twist-drill.

Drill-Stock.—There are various patterns of drill-stocks, some of them automatic, for holding drills of different sizes for small holes. Hand drills with revolving handle, like an egg-beater, can be used for small drills. See Bit-brace.

Duck's-bill-Bit.—See Bits.

Expansion-Bit.—See Bits.

File.—The file is a piece of hard steel with rows of ridges or teeth cut obliquely on the surface. When cut in one direction only it is called single-cut, but when there are two oblique rows of teeth crossing each other it is called double-cut. These ridges incline towards the end or point of the tool, so that the file, like the saw, plane, and scraper, cuts when pushed forward. Files for wood have wider teeth than those for metal, so do not use a wood file on metal or a metal file for wood. The slab-sided shape (Fig. 524) is perhaps the most useful, if you can have but one file. A round "rat-tailed" file is also useful, and various other shapes if you can have a variety. For metal, the triangular, flat, the half-round, shown in Fig. 525, and the rat-tail are best. Files are very important for smoothing or rounding edges and curving surfaces.

Before beginning to file, be sure that the wood is firmly secured so that it will not slip and so that you can use the file with both hands. Hold the tool with the right hand, thumb uppermost, and steady the end with the left hand, thumb uppermost (Fig. 526), or with the fingers or palm. To file squarely across, push the tool steadily and evenly straight forward, without rocking up and down, and pressing only on the forward stroke.

In filing rounded surfaces, a rocking motion is often helpful and the way and direction in which to file in such cases must depend upon the shape of the work and the grain of the wood, as you will quickly learn. See Rounding-sticks.

Press lightly the first time you use a new file, until the fine edges of the teeth have been worn a little, as a violent filing on the first strokes may damage the cutting edges of the teeth.

When a file becomes clogged with wood-dust or other substances, soak it in hot water a little while and then brush with a stiff brush. A file-card is useful. A piece of dog-fish skin, if you can obtain it, cuts somewhat like a file or coarse sandpaper, and is useful for curved surfaces where you wish to use the tools after smoothing.

Filing.—See File.

Filing (of Saws).—See Sharpening.

Finishing.—To acquire a high degree of proficiency in finishing indoor wood-work requires long training and practice, but the simpler processes can be undertaken to good advantage by the beginner.

There are a number of ways from which to choose. Simply rubbing thoroughly with linseed oil gives a good, soft, permanent finish, which some prefer to anything else, but you should be sure that all superfluous oil is rubbed off. Do not hang a recently oiled book-shelf or cabinet against the wall-paper of the room, for fear of defacing it. An oil finish, unless rubbed a good deal, has the disadvantage of getting soiled and collecting dust and dirt, but it is easily sandpapered and renewed and is certainly in better taste than a coarse, shiny, cheap varnish.

An old-fashioned way is simply to apply a mixture of turpentine and beeswax, rubbing it as long as your strength and patience will allow. Melt some beeswax in a can or saucepan and, when melted and taken from the stove, pour in enough turpentine to make it the consistency of paste. Then apply with a brush or cloth and rub in and clean off the excess with a stiff brush or cloth, scrubbing the work as you would a stove. This makes a beautiful finish, soft and lustrous. It shows spots, however, and, though it is so easily applied, it requires continual renewing and rubbing to be kept in good condition.

To make a hard and durable coating on the surface of the wood some kind of varnish is required. There is nothing better than shellac for the purpose of the amateur. It is not very hard to use, and there is certainly nothing which gives a finish of nicer quality. The surface dries quickly and the coat hardens more rapidly than most kinds of varnish. For some cases, as a boat, it is well to shellac first and finish with good varnish.[43] Shellac is cut (dissolved) in alcohol, and can be bought prepared, but it is better to cut it yourself, to diminish the chance of adulteration with cheaper substances. Orange shellac will do for most of your work. Into an open-mouthed bottle put some of the shellac (which comes in flakes and looks somewhat like glue) and pour over it enough grain alcohol (95 per cent. grade) to somewhat more than cover the shellac. Cork the bottle and leave in a warm place until the shellac is cut. Shaking will hasten the process. Wood alcohol can be used and is cheaper, but work done with it is not so good. It is a deadly poison taken internally and on account of the fumes it is best not to use it for a long time in a close room. If the tawny tint of the orange shellac is objectionable, white (bleached) shellac can be used, but this it is well to buy already prepared. It is a little harder to use than the coloured kind.

Use a flat bristle-brush and not a soft camel's-hair brush, unless for the last coat. One from one inch to two inches wide will be probably suitable for most of your work. For large surfaces, however, a larger brush is better. After using, always clean the brush thoroughly with alcohol.

Always shellac in a warm, dry place, free from dust—never where it is cold and damp; but on the other hand do not leave the work close to a hot stove or it may blister.

The shellac should be quite thin. It should flow very freely from the brush. Of the two extremes, it is better to have it too thin rather than too thick. Three or four thin coats give a much better result than two coats of thick, gummy shellac. Never try to thin it with anything but alcohol. Keep the bottle corked to prevent evaporation of the alcohol and to keep out the dust.

Before beginning to shellac, see that the work is free from dust. Pour a small quantity of the shellac into a small dish of glass or earthenware, not of tin. Before applying to the wood, wipe the surplus shellac from the brush on the edge of the dish, so that it will not drip, and then lay on the coat as evenly and smoothly as possible, working from the top or from one end or side, and with the grain, so far as possible.[44] Do not apply the brush at first exactly at the edge of the surface, lest the shellac collect too thickly at the edge, but apply the brush first a little way on the surface and then work from the edge. Work quickly and lightly. Begin and end the strokes of the brush gradually—lighten them at the end—so as to avoid a "lap" when the strokes begin again. Do not work over the coat after it has begun to set or try to patch up spots. Simply lay it on as well as you can and let it go at that. If it is not right you will know how to do better next time.

Give each coat plenty of time to harden before applying another—twenty-four hours is none too long. Do not put on five or six coats in a day as is sometimes done. The outer coat hinders the drying of the shellac underneath, by keeping the air from it,—just as with paints,—and the way to do durable work is not to put on a fresh coat until the previous one is thoroughly dry and hard. Shellac dries very quickly so that you can touch it, but does not get really hard throughout for some time, so do not be in haste to put on a second coat.[45]

If there are holes, cracks, or defects of any kind to be filled up, this is the time to do it—after the first coat is hard. One way to do this is to hold a hot iron close to a piece of shellac directly over the hole, which will be filled with the melted shellac. The surplus can be carefully pared off after it is hard. Another way is to use wax coloured to match the wood. The wax can easily be coloured by melting and adding a small quantity of whatever dry colour—burnt umber, for instance—may be required. Do not use putty in such cases.

When the first coat is hard, skim over the surface with very fine sandpaper (00), to remove any roughnesses, and apply the second coat. This is sometimes sufficient. If not, sandpaper and shellac again, and a fourth time if necessary. When you have a sufficient "body" of shellac on the wood, you can much improve the quality of the surface by rubbing it down with powdered pumice-stone and oil, which will remove the "shiny" effect and leave a softer and finer surface. To do this, take a bit of felt or haircloth, and wet it with thin oil (kerosene will do, or petroleum, or linseed oil thinned with turpentine or benzine, but the latter is dangerous to have around), take up a little of the pumice, and carefully and evenly rub over the surface, with the grain, renewing the oil and pumice as may be needed, or they can be sprinkled on the work. But be careful to rub evenly and not too long on any one spot, for it will be hard to repair the damage if you should rub through to the wood. Wipe the whole off thoroughly with soft cloth. This process will be sufficient for most amateur work. For some work simply rubbing down with the finest sandpaper wet with oil is enough. In using sandpaper for rubbing down nice work, split it—that is, remove the outer layer of paper, which will leave the sanded layer thin and pliable and less likely to scratch or rub through the finish. A handful of tightly squeezed curled hair can be used.

If varnish is to be used over the shellac as in case of a boat, simply sandpaper the shellac and do not rub with pumice and oil.

With fine-grained wood, such as cherry, the process given above is all that will be required, but with coarse, open-grained wood, like oak, a good many coats will be needed to fill the pores and give a smooth surface. Therefore a "filler" is often used to fill the pores of the grain. This is cheap and can be bought in the form of paste (either light or dark), which you can apply according to the directions on the can. Rub it into the wood thoroughly, let it stand until it begins to set, or stiffen, then rub it off with a bit of burlap or any coarse material, across the grain (lest you wipe it out of the pores). After it has become hard enough, sandpaper, and clean off any that may remain on the surface. Then shellac as described. The filler can have the shade of the wood, or sometimes, as in oak, the figure of the grain can be brought out finely by using a filler somewhat darker than the hue of the wood. Be sure to clean off the filler thoroughly, using a tool to clean out the angles and corners, or the finished surface will have a cloudy or muddy appearance.

The general directions given for shell acing apply also to the use of varnish, but varnishing is in some respects harder for the amateur to do well. Consult the dealer about the kind of varnish and the brush best suited to the particular piece of work you have in hand. The final coat of varnish can be rubbed down with pumice or tripoli and water. Rotten-stone used with oil (petroleum is good) is excellent for giving a soft polish.

French polishing is often attempted by the amateur, but it should be learned by taking a lesson from a practical polisher, and not from a book. The general idea of the process is as follows: A wad or pad of wool is made and on this is poured thin shellac, adding whatever alcohol may be necessary. This wet pad is then covered with a piece of clean linen, a drop of oil put on the outside to prevent the shellac from sticking, and the pad is then quickly passed over the surface with a circular motion, or with longer strokes in the form of the figure 8, or in some cases simply back and forth. After doing this for a while a very thin coat will have been deposited. This is allowed to dry for a short time, when the process is repeated, again and again, until a sufficient body of the polished finish has been formed. The details of the process vary with different finishers. It is quite easy to polish a small flat surface or such an object as the arm of a chair, but it is much harder for an amateur to successfully polish a large flat surface, like a table-top, except after much practice. A first coating of shellac applied with the brush and skimmed over with sandpaper will save labour in the polishing process.

Before refinishing old work it should, if the surface is in bad condition, be scraped down to the wood, using the scraper and finishing with sandpaper. A chisel (used like the scraper) is sometimes convenient to remove a thick body of old varnish. If the surface does not need scraping, it should be cleaned, either by washing with soapsuds or it can be scrubbed clean with the finest sandpaper, split, using oil or water as the case may be, but seeing that the work is wiped off perfectly dry before applying a new coat. Pumice can be used, as already described, and a stiff brush, like a nail-or tooth-brush, is excellent for cleaning out corners and carved work.

For simply brightening and cleaning furniture, a mixture of equal parts of linseed oil and turpentine with a minute quantity of japan is excellent. It should be well rubbed and carefully cleaned off. This will make scratches and bruises less conspicuous, and will make the article look fresher for a time, but it is only a cleaner and not a substitute for refinishing.

Firmer-Chisel.—See Chisel.

Fore-Plane.—See Plane.

Framing-Chisel.—See Chisel.

Gauge.—There are many kinds of gauges in the market, but they all depend on the same principle, having a block, head, stock, or fence, to slide along against the edge of the wood, and a bar, beam, or stem, which slides through the block, can be set to project from it at any required distance, and which has near its end a spur or marking point (Fig. 533). The stem has the divisions of a rule marked upon it, so that the spur can be readily set at the required distance. In some gauges the spur or marking point is sharpened to an edge parallel with the head, rather than to a point, as it is more certain to make a clear, sharp line, and is best when slightly convex on the side toward the head (Fig. 527). This gives the spur a tendency to run the line away from and not toward the edge where the head is, thus helping to keep the head close up to the edge. Sometimes a round point is used, and occasionally a knife point or blade for cutting thin stock into strips; and sometimes a wheel with sharpened edge. A form of gauge adapted for gauging from curved as well as straight edges is also made. Do not trust the accuracy of the scale marked on a common gauge, for if the spur is at all out of place, as is sometimes the case, you cannot rely upon the scale. Test by measuring from the head to the spur with the rule.

The mortise-gauge has two spurs, one of which is movable and can be set at any required distance from the other, so that two lines can be marked at once, as for a mortise. This is a time-saving tool, and very convenient, but not a necessity for amateur work.

There are gauges with long beams or stems and with long heads for gauging across wide spaces, but when you need anything of the sort you can easily make it and use with it either pencil, awl, or knife, as may best suit the case in hand.

If you wish to draw a line two inches from the edge of a board, for example, you can mark off two or more points at the required distance and with a rule and pencil draw the line through these points. If you were to make the points so near together as to touch, you would have the line without needing the ruler. This is what the gauge does. It makes a continuous measurement and a continuous mark, which is of course the line required.

The only gauge you need for rough work is a rule (or even a stick) and a pencil. To draw a line, for example, two inches from the edge of a board, take the rule in one hand, and lay the end flat on the surface of the board so that it laps over two inches from the edge (Fig. 528). Place the forefinger underneath, against the edge, so that the end of the rule will remain two inches from the edge, and simply slide rule and finger along the edge, holding a pencil at the end of the rule with the other hand to make the mark. The finger must be kept evenly pressed against the edge. This is only suited for rough work, or for getting out stock approximately to shape, and of course cannot be depended upon for accurate measurement.

Something more accurate, with which you cannot get splinters in your finger, can easily be made, when needed, in this way. To run a line two inches from an edge, for example, and parallel to it, simply take any short stick and cut a piece out of it at one end so that the distance from the shoulder to the end will be just two inches, as shown in Fig. 529. Apply this to the edge of the piece and slide it along on the same principle as the rule and finger, being careful to keep the shoulder pressed up to the edge and the pencil or knife held firmly against the end. Instead of cutting out a piece you can nail one piece on another (Fig. 530). The latter is better for straight work because the head or fence is longer and so can be more securely pressed against the edge. An objection to this gauge is the need of making a new one for every measurement, but where there is occasion to keep repeating a measurement it is particularly convenient and quickly made.

For another home-made gauge (Fig. 531) cut a recess in one side of a block just wide enough to hold the rule and just deep enough so that the flat side of the rule will project a trifle above the surface of the block. On this side of the block fasten a small strip, with a screw, so that when the two pieces are seized in the hand the rule will be held fast at the point to which it is adjusted. This is more accurate than to use the hand alone. You can readily contrive such arrangements, which will be quite accurate if carefully used, but it is not worth while to spend much time over such makeshifts (except in case of necessity), for a fairly good gauge can be bought for a small sum.

The gauge is usually an awkward tool for the beginner to use. He finds it hard to keep the stock firmly against the edge while sliding it along, and lets the spur dig or plough deeply into the wood—the spur tends to follow the grain of the wood and when the grain runs toward the edge the result is often as shown in Fig. 532, the stock being pushed from the edge. The stock is then pushed back and the wobbly process continued. To avoid these errors, the gauge, held well in front of you in one hand, should be tipped or inclined from you so that the spur will be drawn along the surface (Fig. 533) and will make but a slight scratch. Then, keeping the stock or head firmly pressed against the edge, push the gauge steadily from you, watching carefully to see (1st) that the spur does not begin to dig into the wood instead of lightly scratching it, and (2d) that the head does not slip away from the edge. This will prevent the point catching or jumping and will insure a good mark, which can easily be deepened by going over the line a second time if necessary.

It is easier to mark a line when the spur is near the head of the gauge than when it is run out to some distance. The guiding power of the fence or head is greater over a point near to it than over a point at a distance, from which you can readily see that, conversely, the longer the head or fence, the easier the gauging becomes—that is, for straight lines, which is much the most common use of the gauge. In gauging from a curved edge, a long fence, unless curved, would be impracticable.

Where it will injure the work to have the gauge marks show (as when the work is to be finished with shellac or varnish), be careful not to carry them farther than necessary, as very slight scratches show plainly after finishing. Otherwise, in cases where the marks will not show or do no harm, as in rough framing, it is as well to run them past the required points, as it is quicker to do so and the juncture of lines which cross is more distinct.

Gauge from the same side of the wood in laying out mortises or any lines intended to be in the middle of a piece of wood, or at a fixed distance from one edge, else if the edges are not exactly parallel (as is often the case) the markings will differ. See also Scribing.

Gimlet.—The gimlet is useful, cheap, and good for boring where the hole does not come near the edge, but near the edge or in thin wood great care must be taken to prevent splitting. If necessary to use it in such a case, keep turning it backwards for every turn ahead and do not try to force it through the wood. It is better, however, to use some other tool if you can (see Bits and Twist-drill), for the tapering form of the gimlet gives it a wedge-like, prying action upon the woody fibres.

Gimlet-Bit.—See Bits.

Glazing.—An old chisel can be used to clean off old putty before setting glass. On new work, see that the rabbet or shoulder where the putty is to go is primed with lead paint before putting on the putty (see Painting). You can buy glazier's points, to hold the glass in position under the putty, for a trifle, or very small brads can be used. No special directions are necessary for using the putty.

To set common glass in furniture, as in bookcase doors, it is better to fasten it in place with small strips, not pressed too tightly against it. Strips of plain moulding are good. To set plate glass in furniture, the same means can be used for small pieces, but large plates, as for a mirror, should be held in place by little strips of soft pine, one or two inches long, bevelled on one side. The other side being glued, these strips can be lightly pressed into the crack around the glass. These short pieces, glued to the frame on one side and with the bevelled side wedging the glass into place, hold the latter securely, but, owing to the softness of the wood, not too rigidly.

Glue.—See Gluing.

Gluing.—Glue is made from refuse animal matter, and also from parts of fishes, the latter being known as fish glue. It comes in sheets or cakes or flakes, to be dissolved and used hot, or already prepared in liquid form.

The majority of practical mechanics prefer the former (i.e., "hot" glue) for nice work, although the use of liquid glue has increased much of late years. Hot glue is probably preferable if all the conditions are just as they should be, but if not so, liquid or "cold" glue may be better.

Buy the best grade. It is the cheapest for good work, and you will not use enough to make the price much of an obstacle. The only sure test by which to buy glue is to get a little and see how it holds. A good way to prove the quality of your glue is to soak it over night, or as long as may be necessary, in whatever quantity of water you think it will absorb. The more it will swell without dissolving, the better the quality. Poor glue will dissolve.

You cannot positively tell good glue by the colour, for there are many kinds (and for more than one purpose) and many makers, but whatever the colour, the glue should be clear looking and not cloudy or muddy. Do not use glue that has a mouldy or otherwise disagreeable or offensive smell or a bad taste.

To prepare hot glue, break the glue into small pieces, and soak it in all the cold water it will absorb for perhaps twelve hours, when it will have become swollen and softened and will look and feel somewhat like jelly. Then put it in the inner glue-pot (see Glue-pot) and cause the water in the outer vessel to boil for several hours. It is quicker to dissolve the glue at once without soaking, but the result does not seem to be quite as good as by the former method. The glue to be right for use must be thin enough to drip from the brush in a thread or stream, without collecting in drops like water, and you can tell something about its being in condition to use by testing it between your fingers. Do not weaken its strength, however, by diluting with more water than is necessary.

It is important to keep the glue and the glue-pot clean, and if the odour from your glue becomes offensive at any time clean out the glue-pot and make fresh.

Glue loses strength by repeated meltings, so do not dissolve too much at a time, and after heating it over two or three times throw away any that is left in the glue-pot, cleaning the latter thoroughly. On work which you are very particular about mix fresh glue each time.[46]

You can make a good glue-brush of a stick of rattan. Soften the end in hot water and pound it with the hammer until the fibres separate. For corners, cracks, holes, and the like use sticks, which you can whittle to any required shape.

Although apparently too simple an operation to need much explanation, and often ignored in books on wood-work, as if anyone could of course glue two pieces together, the operation, to be really successful, calls for more knowledge of the principles involved than beginners or amateurs usually possess. Do not daub a thick layer of lukewarm glue on the pieces, and then slap them together as you would make a sandwich, after the usual domestic fashion. Done in this way the pieces often stick for a while, but there is nothing certain about it.

We have seen that wood is full of little holes (pores, as they are commonly called), or spaces between the fibres (see Fig. 6). The glue becomes worked into these little pores and that is what gives it such a firm hold on the wood, somewhat as plastering is forced (purposely) into the cracks between the laths.

So you must have the glue thin, that it may fill these little cavities and get a "grip" on the wood; you must have it hot, that it may the more easily penetrate these open spaces before it becomes chilled; you must have the wood warm, that the glue may not be chilled and begin to set before it has a chance to penetrate the interstices of the wood; and you must press the pieces together so hard as to expel the body of glue from between them, forcing it into the pores and squeezing outside what will not go in, to be wiped or scraped off afterward. For what you want is not to have the two pieces held together by a layer of glue between them, lightly sticking to each surface and separating the two in proportion to the thickness of the layer; but to have the two surfaces as close together as possible, held so by the tenacity of the glue reaching from the cavities of one surface to those of the other. The closer the surfaces are forced together the better, as the glue will be less exposed to the atmosphere.

You will see from all this that gluing should be done in a warm room of an even temperature.

While with hot glue it will not do to change the relative positions of the pieces after putting together, you can have considerable time to get them in position if the liquid or cold glue is used. Where several places in the same piece of work have to be glued together at the same time, it is frequently very hard to get around with the hot glue before that first applied has begun to set, unless you have help. In such cases, cold glue is a great convenience. If your shop is not warm or if you cannot have your glue hot, you had better use the liquid glue. It takes much longer to set than the other. In cold weather it should be slightly warmed. It can be thinned with vinegar or acetic acid, or what you wish to use at once may be thinned with water. Do not pour water into the can of glue, as it will not keep so well.

You will also readily see that it is much easier to make good glued joints in soft wood than in hard, for the former is more readily squeezed to a fit by the clamping, while with the latter it is quite essential that the pieces should fit with extreme accuracy before clamping (see note under Clamps).

Before beginning to glue have everything laid out, fit the pieces together, clamp them up just as if you had put on the glue, and see that everything comes together right—i.e., rehearse the gluing process before using the glue itself. This is a very important point, particularly when there are several pieces to be glued, for you will have no time to waste after you have begun to use the glue.

Do not spread the glue on too thick. Take the dirt off both pieces, then, while putting the glue on one, have the other warming slightly at the fire. The moment the glue on the brush leaves the glue-pot it begins to cool. If it fairly begins to set before you get the two pieces together, your joint will not be good. You will have to take it apart, scrape off all the old glue, and begin over again. So you will see there is no time to be lost when once you begin and it will be too late then to correct any mistakes in the fitting of the wood-work. Good workmen always put the work together and take it apart again before gluing.

Do not wipe off the glue which squeezes out from a glued joint (unless for some special reason) nor wash it off with water. Let it harden, and clean it off after the joint has set. It helps protect the joint.

Do not be in haste to unclamp your work. When to release it depends on the kind of wood, the kind of work, and the circumstances under which the gluing is done, and no exact time can be set. If for some temporary and unimportant purpose and in soft pine, for instance, you can unclamp in a few hours or even less, but for important work, which is to hold permanently, twelve hours is scarcely time enough even for soft wood and hot glue, and twenty-four hours is none too long, for though the glue dries quickly to the touch, it takes considerable time to get thoroughly hard. It is safer to allow more time for hard wood. The thickness of the stock makes a difference also. Large junks and blocks and boards glued flatways require more time than ¼" stock, thin strips, or little splinters. You can tell something by the condition of the glue that is squeezed from the joint. Liquid glue sets much more slowly, and twenty-four hours is soon enough to release the work under average conditions. The warmth and dryness of the air make a good deal of difference. Under unfavourable conditions more than forty-eight hours may be required.

If for any reason you cannot clamp a joint, after applying the glue rub one piece back and forth upon the other a few times.

Rub wax, soap, or tallow on any part which must not be stuck by surplus glue which may exude from a joint, as in the case of a panel which may become stuck by the glue used in fastening the frame (see Doors and Panels).

To glue two pieces where the surface is to be planed or trimmed at the joint, do not glue them together after they are planed or trimmed, but glue them first, and plane or trim them afterwards, taking care to have the grain of the pieces run in the same direction (see Jointing).

To glue pieces end to end, or as in a mitre,—that is, "end wood,"—first size with thin glue to stop the pores, else the glue will be quickly soaked up. Then, after allowing this coat to stand, glue in the ordinary way. But glued joints in end wood are seldom good and are to be avoided.

A great deal of glued work comes apart, and a great many mistakes in putting work together are caused by not understanding, or not bearing in mind, the way wood expands and contracts and warps and winds from heat and cold, dryness and moisture. This is an important matter if you wish to do good gluing. Do not think that all that is necessary is to have your wood dry and that then you can glue the pieces together in any relative positions. Veneers or thin pieces are sometimes successfully glued with the grain of the pieces running at right angles, as seen in chair seats, but as a rule avoid gluing wide pieces together with the grain running at right angles. See Laying out the Work, in Chapter IV.; also Jointing.

Glue-Pot.—This can be bought of copper, iron, or tin. A medium-sized one is more useful than a very small one. Have a cover to keep out dust and loose particles.

If obliged to make shift without a proper glue-pot, always use two dishes like a regular glue-pot, with water in the outer one, on the principle of the double boiler used for cooking, else the glue will be sure to burn and be spoiled. Two cans, such as are used for tomatoes or other vegetables, can be used on a pinch, one being larger than the other and fastened in place with wire or in some way to keep the smaller can from moving around too much; but a regular glue-pot is much better. See Gluing.