THE PRINCIPAL CAVERN REGIONS OF SOUTHWESTERN EUROPE INCLUDING
THE CAVERNS THAT CONTAIN PALEOLITHIC MURAL DECORATIONS
Region traversed in the author's motor tour of 1912 through the Palæolithic caverns of Italy, France, and Spain.
Footnotes:
[A] The folding map at the end of the volume exhibits the entire extent of the author's tour.
[B] Lucretius was born 95 B. C. His poem was completed before 53 B. C. In the opening lines of Book III he attributes all his philosophy and science to the Greeks. See Appendix, Note I.
[C] Lucretius, On the Nature of Things, metrical version by J. M. Good. Bohn's Classical Library, London, 1890.
[D] Horace was born 65 B. C., and his Satires are attributed to the years 35-29 B. C. See Appendix, Note II.
[E] Æschylus was born 525 B. C. See Appendix, Note III.
[F] Georges Louis Leclerc Buffon (b. 1707, d. 1788). For reviews of Buffon's opinions and theories see Osborn, 1894.1, pp. 130-9; also Butler, 1911.1, pp. 74-172.
[G] Jean Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet, known as the Chevalier de Lamarck (b. 1744, d. 1829). For a summary of the views of Lamarck see Osborn, 1894.1, pp. 152-181; also Butler, 1911.1, pp. 235-314, an excellent presentation of Lamarck's opinions.
[H] References are indicated by numbers only throughout the text. At the close of each chapter is a list giving the author, date, and reference number for every citation. A full list of all the works cited, including those from which illustrations have been taken, together with complete references, will be found in the bibliography at the end of the book.
[I] The best reference works on the history of French and German Palæolithic Archæology are: Cartailhac,(12) La France Préhistorique; Déchelette,(13) Manuel d'Archéologie, T. 1; Reinach,(14) Catalogue du Musée de St.-Germain: Alluvions et Cavernes; Schmidt,(15) Die diluviale Vorzeit Deutschlands; Avebury,(16) Prehistoric Times.
[J] The Cannstatt skull and Cannstatt race are now regarded as Neolithic, and therefore not contemporary with the mammoth or the cave-bear.
[K] Note that lists and tables of races, cultural stages, faunæ, etc., in this volume are given not in chronological but in stratigraphic order, beginning with the most recent at the top and ending with the oldest at the bottom.
[L] This table is a modification of that of Obermaier in his Mensch der Vorzeit.(38) To each period of the chronologic reckoning should be added the 1900 years of our era.
[M] Bison and wild cattle are grass eaters, and their natural habitats are the open plain and meadow regions. They also range into open forest lands where grasses can be found. The prehistoric 'urus' and 'wisent' of Europe were both found in forests, but this may not have been their natural habitat in Palæolithic times. See Appendix, Note IV.
[N] A recent article by A. Smith Woodward describes the fourth known specimen of Dryopithecus, lately discovered in northern Spain (see Woodward, 1914.2).
[O] There is a vast Pithecanthropus literature. That chiefly utilized in the present description includes Dubois,(13) Fischer,(14) Schwalbe,(15) Büchner.(16)
[P] In the Trinil skull as restored by McGregor (Fig. 36) the cranial capacity is 900 c.cm.
[Q] These horses are now identified respectively as E. mauerensis, E. mosbachensis, and E. süssenbornensis.
[R] This glaciation as it occurs in northern Europe has been termed Polandian by Geikie; in the Alps Penck has termed it the Riss; in America it is known as the Illinoian from the great drifts it deposited over the State of Illinois.
[S] This stage is known as the Helvetian or Dürntenian of Geikie; it is the Riss-Würm of Penck's terminology and the Sangamon of the American glaciologists.
[T] Modified after Schmidt.
[U] The weakness of Penck's argument for placing the Chellean in the Second Interglacial was exposed by precise observations of Boule(5) and Obermaier(6) in the Alps, the Jura, and the Pyrenees.
[V] The writer is indebted to M. Marcelin Boule and to M. l'Abbé Henri Breuil for their observations on this fauna and culture period.
[W] Industry similar to the Chellean, but not necessarily of the same age, is distributed all over eastern Africa from Egypt to the Cape.
[X] Schmidt regards the Strépyan implements, which are considered by Rutot and others to be transitional, between the Mesvinian and the Chellean, as closely similar to the Pre-Chellean of France and probably of the same age.
[Y] The original paper describing this remarkable discovery was read before the Geological Society of London, December, 1912, and published as a separate pamphlet in March, 1913. A discussion as to the geologic age by Kennard, Clement Reid, and others was held at the time of the reading of the original paper.
[Z] By the author of this work, and also by Professor J. Howard McGregor of Columbia University and Doctor William K. Gregory of Columbia University and of the American Museum of Natural History.
[AA] Guide to the Fossil Remains of Man, 1915.1.
[AB] The reconstruction (Fig. 66) of the Piltdown skull made by Professor J. H. McGregor has a cranial capacity of about 1300 c.cm. The brain (Fig. 70) is seen to be very narrow and low in the prefrontal area, the seat of the higher mental faculties. In the reconstruction the cranial region is in the main very like the second restoration by Doctor Smith Woodward, but the jaws differ in some respects. The tooth hitherto regarded as a right lower canine, is now placed as the left upper canine, in accord with the conclusions of the author of this work and of Doctors Matthew and Gregory of the American Museum of Natural History. The dental arches are more curved, thus more human and less ape-like than in the Smith Woodward restoration, and the chin region is made somewhat deeper, thus giving a somewhat less prognathous aspect to the face.
[AC] The early Teutonic designation of these animals was as follows: bison, 'wisent,' wild ox, 'auerochs,' 'urochs' (the 'urus' of Cæsar). The urus survived in Germany as late as the seventeenth century, while a few of the bison or 'wisent' survive to the present time. The bison was distinctively a short-headed animal, while its contemporary, the urus, was long-headed and less agile. At Dürnten, near Zürich, remains of the urus are found associated with those of the hardy, straight-tusked elephant and of Merck's rhinoceros. (See Appendix, Note IV.)
[AD] The author was guided through this station by Doctor Hugo Obermaier in the summer of 1912.
[AE] The entire fourth glaciation has been termed Mecklenburgian by Geikie;(6) the recession may correspond with his Fourth Interglacial Stage, the Lower Forestian. It is the Würm of Penck in the Alpine region, with a first and second maximum separated by the recession known as the Laufenschwankung. In America it is the early Wisconsin with the Peorian recession interval, followed by the late Wisconsin, which is the final great glaciation of America.
[AF] Obermaier, Breuil and Schmidt assign La Micoque to the transition between late Acheulean and early Mousterian times.
[AG] The climate of the tundras is extreme, the winter temperature falling on an average to 27°F. below zero, while in summer the temperature is about 50°F. In the subarctic steppes the average January temperature hardly exceeds 30°F., while that of July is 70°F.
[AH] The last of this very primitive race of the great island of Tasmania became extinct in 1877.(62)
[AI] This cavern, like many of those discovered in the early days of anthropological research, was not carefully explored in reference to the all-important horizontal bedding of the layers of flint flakes and of animal remains.
[AJ] See Appendix, Note VI.
[AK] Named in honor of the reigning Prince of Monaco, whose generous gifts and personal interest made the adequate exploration of these grottos possible.
[AL] This correlation agrees in the main with that of Schmidt in his Diluviale Vorzeit Deutschlands.(10)
[AM] Obermaier,(19) R. Martin.(20)
[AN] Denotes very frequent occurrence of a typical form.
[AO] Denotes very frequent occurrence of a typical form.
[AP] Denotes very frequent occurrence of a typical form.
[AQ] Breuil,(34) Schmidt.(35)
[AR] The writer had the privilege of visiting all these caverns in the company either of Professor Emile Cartailhac, or of the Abbé Breuil.
[AS] Despite Schwalbe's statement, the supraorbital ridges in this skull appear to form a complete bridge. Doctor Hrdlička regards the related Předmost skull as distinctly showing Neanderthaloid affinity.
[AT] Obermaier,(45) R. Martin.(46)
[AU] From notes by Doctor Robert H. Lowie (Nov. 16, 1914) of the American Museum of Natural History on the opinions of Marett (Anthropology) and of James.
[AV] After Obermaier,(10) R. Martin,(11) and others.
[AW] This custom is observed again in Azilian times in the burials at Ofnet on the Danube (see page 475).
[AX] The whole history of these successive discoveries, beginning with the finding of an engraved bone, in 1834, in the grotto of Chaffaud, and concluding with the discoveries of Lalanne, and of Bégouen, in 1912, is summarized in the admirable little handbook by Salomon Reinach.(23) This convenient volume also includes outline tracings of the more important drawings and sculptures found in western Europe up to the present time.
[AY] Only a few drawings from this cavern have as yet been published, such as the famous mammoth of Combarelles; the entire work is in the hands of Breuil.
[AZ] The stations of Castillo, of Pasiega, and of Altamira were visited by the writer, under the guidance of Doctor Hugo Obermaier, in August, 1912.
[BA] Letter of October 23, 1912.
[BB] J. Bayer(34) has lately expressed the opinion that the industry of the open 'loess' stations of Munzingen, Aggsbach, and Gobelsburg is not really of Magdalenian age, but represents an atypical Aurignacian.
[BC] Lucretius, On the Nature of Things, metrical version by J. M. Good. Bohn's Classical Library, London, 1890.
[BD] Bossuet, Jacques Bénigne, Discours sur l'Histoire universelle (first published in 1681), pp. 9, 10. Edition conforme à celle de 1700, troisième et dernière édition revue par l'auteur. Paris, Librairie de Firmin Didot Frères, 1845.
[BE] The Satires, Epistles and Ars Poetica of Horace, the Latin Text with Conington's Translation, pp. 29, 31. George Bell & Sons, London, 1904.
[BF] Æschylus, Prometheus Bound. Elizabeth Barrett Browning, Poetical Works of Elizabeth Barrett Browning, pp. 148, 149. Oxford edition, 1906. Henry Frowde, London, Edinburgh, Glasgow, New York, and Toronto.
[BG] Kobelt, W., Die Verbreitung der Tierwelt, pp. 403-7. C. H. Tauchnitz, Leipsic, 1902.
[BH] Abercromby, Hon. John, The Prehistoric Pottery of the Canary Islands and Its Makers. Royal Anthropological Institute, November 17, 1914. Nature, December 3, 1914, p. 383.
[BI] Verneau, Dr. R., Cinq années de séjour aux îles Canaries. (Ouvrage couronné par l'Académie des sciences, 1891.)
[BJ] Bunbury, E. H. History of Ancient Geography, vol. I, pp. 318-333. John Murray, London, 1879.
[BK] Authors' names are given in the bibliography and in the reference lists at the end of each chapter.