(Distances by rail are in italics; by sea in roman.)

Separating the above distance into land and sea travel, we have 6,166 miles of railway, and a trifle over 16,000 miles of water. Allowing continuous progress at the rate of twenty-five miles an hour on land and twelve miles on the water we could swing around the great circle inside of sixty-seven days. And if we take the quickest journeys that have been made over the different portions of the route—the special trains that have passed across the Continent on two or three occasions, and the extraordinary runs of steamers on the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans, and in the China and Mediterranean Seas—add them together, and make no deductions for delays in port, we can have a theoretical journey around the world in less than sixty days. Phileas Fogg is left far in the rear, and Jules Verne must resume his pen and make another trial, if he would really astonish us. Give us the highest recorded speed upon railways and ocean steamers, and apply it to the route in question, and we will put a girdle around the earth in the half of eighty days, with several hours to spare.

  CHAPTER XXV.

LEGAL RIGHTS OF TRAVELERS.

For the information contained in this chapter the author is indebted to a well-known lawyer of New York, who has had considerable experience in suits of individuals against railway and steamship companies, and is therefore thoroughly competent to write on the subject.

"In considering the legal rights of travelers it is necessary to remember that they are not the same in all countries, nor even in different states of one country. Legal right in England may not be legal right in France or the United States, and a decision of a court in New York may be quite opposed to one in a case exactly similar in Ohio or California. I will endeavor to give a summary of decisions embodying the most important relations of the traveler to the carrying companies, and where there are two cases of similar character, that have been differently decided, I shall prefer the one from the higher court.

"One of the most frequent causes of dispute in the United States is the time for which a ticket is valid. It has been generally held that a ticket for a single trip over a railway is good for any length of time, with the understanding that when the journey begins it shall be completed in a continuous ride. This applies only to single tickets over the road of one company; when the ticket has one or more coupons attached, and is sold at a lower rate than the single fares would amount to if added together, it is liable to be refused on the ground that it is in the form of a contract that expired a certain number of days after the ticket was issued. There have been many decisions on this subject, the majority of them favoring the claims of the company against the passenger.

"An excursion or round trip ticket, sold at a reduced rate, is held to be a contract, and is worthless if not used in the time specified. It is also non-transferable, if so printed on the face, and the conductor may refuse it when offered, on the return trip, by any person other than the one who used the first half. The theory is that in consideration of the reduced rate the company should have the benefit of any chance that the original purchaser does not return within the specified time. The courts of most of the United States, and also those of England and the Continental countries, are in accord on this subject.

"A ticket marked 'good for this day only,' or 'for this train only,' was formerly held to be good for any day till used, but of late years the majority of decisions are in favor of the printed limitation, on the ground that the companies have a right to regulate their business, and that they must know how many people are to travel by a train in order to make it up properly. But in this case the purchaser of a ticket may have his money returned provided he asks for it before the departure of the train, or can show that it is the fault of the company that he has not used it.

"In regard to the validity of a ticket in the reverse direction from what it reads, there have been several decisions both ways, the passenger claiming that he had paid to be carried a given number of miles over the road and he had a right to travel either way, as he chose. A passenger on the New York and New Haven railway recovered damages for injuries received while being ejected from the cars, but it required a law-suit of five years, and repeated trials, to obtain them. He had offered a ticket from New Haven to New York while riding in the reverse direction, and was put off in consequence. In another instance a passenger from Boston to Portland sued for damages, for ejection from the train when he offered a ticket 'from Portland to Boston,' and lost his case; and the majority of the decisions in England and the United States favor this view of the subject.

"It has been held repeatedly that a passenger is entitled to a seat, and cannot be required to give up his ticket until a seat is provided, though he must show it if asked. A passenger on a New York railway found no seats in the ordinary coaches and went into the drawing-room car that formed part of the train. When called on for the extra charge for the seat he refused it, but announced his readiness to return to the ordinary coaches as soon as a place was provided for him there. Thereupon he was ejected by the porter, and he brought suit against the railway company for damages. The latter claimed it was not responsible, as the drawing-room car was the property of a private individual, and not of the railway, but the courts rejected this claim and gave damages to the passenger. Similar decisions have been made in several cases where railway and sleeping-car companies were concerned, the courts holding that the railways are responsible for the management of the cars that compose their trains, although they may not own them. This principle has been affirmed by the Court of Appeals of New York, and by the Supreme Court of the United States.

"It was formerly held that a conductor must allow a passenger to ride when he had lost his ticket, providing he gave reasonable proof of having purchased one before entering the train, but of late years the courts are inclined to the opinion that it is the passenger's place to take care of his ticket, and it is unfair to ask the conductor to hold a court of inquiry concerning it. Besides, the company has no protection against carrying the person who finds the ticket. In Illinois a passenger in a Pullman car lost his ticket after showing it to the porter; the conductor came around before the train started and demanded the ticket, or its equivalent, and refused to take the porter's word about it, whereupon the passenger went to the ticket-office and procured a certificate to the effect that he had bought a ticket. This the conductor refused, and compelled the passenger to ride in the ordinary coach all night. A jury gave $3,000 damages to the passenger, but a higher court said this amount was excessive, and the man was only entitled to what he had paid for the ticket, and moderate compensation for the inconvenience of being deprived of a place in the sleeping-car.

"There have been frequent lawsuits involving the rights of persons traveling on free passes; the railway pass usually bears on its back a printed notice that 'the person accepting this free pass thereby assumes all risk of accidents,' etc., etc. The courts have generally held that this notice is of no consequence, and the holders of free passes have collected damages for injury to their persons, or loss of property, while using said tickets. The theory is that the pass is granted for some consideration which is the equivalent of the money that would be required to purchase a ticket at the office, and therefore the company is liable, and it has been affirmed by the Supreme Court. Since these decisions, some of the railways print the notice in the form of a contract or agreement, which the passenger signs before delivering the pass to the conductor; no suit under this form of pass has been reported, and the companies think they could not be mulcted under it, as they could show a specific agreement on the part of the passenger not to ask for damages in any event. A tramp, or other person, stealing a ride on a train has no redress for damages, nor any other rights which the company is bound to respect.

"Damages have been recovered in several instances for injuries received in railway stations before the intending passenger had entered the train, or even purchased a ticket, and they have also been recovered for injuries received in the station after the completion of the journey. In all these cases it was shown that the person was in the station either for the intention of traveling, or after the completion of the journey, and in one case where the plaintiff could not establish this fact he lost his case.

"In a case where a passenger in an omnibus was injured by the upsetting of the vehicle, through the driver's carelessness, damages were given by a jury. The omnibus belonged to the railway company, and was run by them between the station and neighboring village. The passenger had no ticket, as tickets were only sold at the station, whither he was going, but it was held that his journey began when he entered the company's omnibus with the intention of traveling by the railway.

"The right of a passenger to protection from drunken and disorderly persons, and from ruffians in general, has been established. The courts have decided that the company through its agents must use 'due diligence' for the protection of peaceable passengers, and unless it does so it is liable. A good illustration is that of a railway in Mississippi where some rowdies beat a passenger severely, and the latter sued the company for negligence. It was shown that the conductor simply asked the rowdies not to get him into trouble, and then left the car; the court held that the company was liable for his failure to use due diligence in protecting the passenger, and gave the latter $6,000 damages, but if the conductor had stopped the train, and called the brakemen and passengers to assist him, the damages would not have been allowed, even if the conductor had failed in his effort at protection.

"Suits have arisen out of the loss of property by passengers in sleeping-cars, and in most instances the company is not held responsible, as it is not a common carrier, and the court rules that it is the passenger's duty to take care of his own personal valuables. The same rulings have been made in several cases where property has been lost in an ordinary passenger-car and suit brought against the company, the courts holding that when a man chooses to take care of his valise or hand-bag it is not in the care of the company. So, also, in instances where passengers have been robbed while on railway trains, the courts have exonerated the companies, except where absolute negligence has been shown. In one case some ruffians entered a car and robbed a passenger of $15,000 in U.S. bonds; the courts held that the company was not responsible, since $15,000 was altogether too large an amount of valuables to be carried about one's person, and before the company was to be held liable it should have been notified, and the property intrusted to its care.

"Responsibility for baggage has given rise to a great many suits on the part of passengers, and the decisions are numerous and varied. In general it is held that a passenger can recover for the loss of personal property such as he wishes to use and actually needs on his journey, 'in reasonable amount.' Most of the railway companies in America stipulate on their tickets that the passenger is limited to one hundred dollars in value and one hundred pounds in weight of baggage, and if he has more than one hundred dollars' worth he must declare it, and pay in addition at the rate of a single fare for every five hundred dollars in value. Extra trunks are usually paid for by the piece, rather than by the weight or value, and checks given accordingly.

"In a suit growing out of the loss of baggage the passenger is required to tell the contents of his trunk, and the jury must decide whether the missing articles belonged properly to the traveler's outfit. In one case a man lost a trunk which contained his 'wardrobe.' When he stated, which he did very reluctantly, that the trunk contained sixteen coats of different sizes, and no other garments, the jury thought it a remarkable wardrobe for a traveler, and he lost his case. Money, watches, and jewelry are admitted to be a part of one's baggage, but they must be carefully packed, and not excessive in amount. Discrimination is made in favor of money, as most civilized nations have recognized this article as a requisite of travel. Surgeons' instruments, law books, and papers for a lawyer going to attend court, dresses of actors and actresses, uniforms of soldiers, and in general anything that may be classed under the head of 'tools of a trade or profession' are legitimate baggage, and form a good basis of a suit for damages in case of loss. A gambler once brought suit for the loss of his trunk, which contained a roulette table and other paraphernalia of his 'profession,' together with two revolvers and a bowie-knife. The court decided against him on the ground that his occupation was contra bonos mores, and the railway company could not be held to a responsibility for anything intended to demoralize the community.

"Where there is clear proof of the loss of a trunk a railway company will generally pay without litigation, if the claimant is a person of respectability, and there is reason to believe that the statement of contents is correct, provided also that the amount claimed is not enormous. It is better for the company to pay one or two hundred dollars in a genuine case than to go to the courts, where it would be pretty sure to be defeated, but there are some companies that make it a rule never to pay until sued, on the ground that they frighten away a great many timid persons, as well as others who cannot afford the time for a lawsuit.

"A famous case, involving the question of what is necessary to one's personal comfort on a journey, is that of a Russian countess against the New York Central railway. One of her trunks, containing laces to the value of $200,000, was opened while she was traveling from New York to Niagara Falls, and about 200 yards of lace were stolen. It was antique and costly, and valued at $80,000; the trunk was old and worn, and its exterior gave no indication of the wealth within. The Countess sued for the value of the lace, and the company defended the suit on the ground that the lady had no right to carry such property in a common trunk, and that it was her duty to inform the company, through its agent, the baggage-master, of the value of the trunk, and pay the proper price for its insurance. The court held that she was not bound to volunteer information, but it was her duty to answer all proper questions concerning her baggage, and to pay whatever was demanded as extra freight. But as nobody had questioned her she was not in the wrong; considering her station in life the laces were necessary to her comfort, and she was awarded $30,000 in compensation for her loss.

"Suits for lost baggage are far less common in Europe than in America. They generally result in favor of the companies, especially where two or more are concerned. Between Paris and London losses occur from time to time, and when the passenger seeks redress he is told that he must show whether the loss took place in France, England, or on the channel, so that the responsibility can be fixed. Of course he can rarely do so; all he knows is that his trunk started from one end of the route and failed to arrive at the other; the company that took it swears it delivered it safely to the other, while the latter swears that it never received it. The unlucky passenger gets the worst of it, and the matter is complicated by having different languages, laws, and customs to contend with. The courts generally take the side of the companies by throwing the burden of proof on the loser; a similar juggle is not unknown in America, as the patrons of freight, express, and transportation lines in general can testify. A parcel or a box will be lost between New York and San Francisco; the shipper holds a receipt or a bill of lading from the company to whom he delivered it in New York, and it is clearly evident that he can know nothing about the movements of his property after it left his hands. But when he asks for redress he is told to 'prove where the loss occurred and let us know who is responsible.'

"Most of the Continental lines of railway have a fixed tariff for payment for lost baggage, and on proof of disappearance of a trunk or a satchel they pay with reasonable promptness. Baggage is so well cared for on the Continent that losses are rare, but the complaints are not infrequent of robberies from trunks while in transit. Travelers on their way from Italy to England sometimes find that their baggage, which was booked through, has been opened while on the road, and valuables abstracted; suspicion points directly to the railway servants, but when a sufferer asks the railway companies to pay him he is met with the response that he must prove on what road the theft occurred, and must also name the man or men concerned in it. As he is unable to do this he loses his time as well as his property, and his principal consolation is to write an account of the affair to the London Times or some other English newspaper.

"The laws regarding common carriers apply to steamships and steamboats the same as to railways, and the decisions in cases arising from loss of the property of passengers are of the general character already described.

"Many suits have arisen consequent upon the failure of railway companies to run their trains at the advertised time, missing connections, or otherwise causing loss to the passenger. The courts have generally held that the advertised time-table of a company has the validity of a contract with the public, and unless it can show that the failure to keep the agreement was quite beyond its control, the passenger must be paid for any immediate loss resulting therefrom. But the allowances are confined to 'direct' rather than to 'indirect' damages, and include extra expense for hotel bills or for special conveyances, and sometimes compensation for injury to health by exposure. A merchant may be able to show that by missing a connection he lost the opportunity to make a valuable contract; a lawyer may prove that a case went against him because the delay on the railway prevented his reaching court till after the judge had rendered his decision; or an actor may show that he disappointed an audience and lost the profits of a performance for the same reason. In all these instances the courts will not hold the companies responsible, as the loss is constructive and not actual. On the other hand the passenger is held guiltless for a free ventilation of his opinions to the conductor or other representative of the company, and he may even indulge in profane expressions, if he is unrestrained by moral training.

"There is a case on record in which a railway train that was running behind time was struck by a tornado, whereby a passenger was injured. A suit was brought for damages on the ground that if the train had been on time it would not have encountered the storm, but the court held that the delay was not in any way the cause of the tornado, and therefore the company had no responsibility in the matter. Accidents from floods, snow-storms, and similar causes are regarded by the courts as 'the act of God,' and if a company can show that it used all diligence to avert disaster, and made every reasonable effort to get the train through on time, it is exonerated.

"Delays on steamships are regarded in the same light. If a steamer meets with an accident at sea, or is detained by storms, the occurrence is treated as a case of force majeure, for which the owners of the ship are not responsible, unless negligence or incapacity of the officers can be clearly shown. If a steamer breaks down after starting on a voyage, and returns to the port of departure, her passengers are entitled to be conveyed on the vessel as soon as the necessary repairs are effected, or on some other vessel of the same company, but the company is not required to return the money paid for the passenger's fare unless it has no vessel to start on the voyage 'within a reasonable time.' It generally does so by courtesy, to avoid making enemies, and not infrequently the company pays the hotel bills of delayed passengers for the same reason. In the Mediterranean and the far East a passenger delayed by the failure of a ship to make a connection, or from any other cause, must pay his own hotel bills, and if he lives on board the ship while waiting in port he must pay for his meals, but not for his lodging.

"When a ship is detained in quarantine the passengers must pay for their meals, at a reasonable price, which is usually fixed beforehand. Several suits, growing out of delays in quarantine, have arisen, and almost invariably the decisions have been in favor of the steamship companies. In one instance a steamer touched at an infected port on her way, and thereby subjected herself to be quarantined on arriving at her destination. It was shown that she was not advertised to touch at the port in question, and her agents, at the point of departure, had distinctly stated she would not stop there; the court compelled the refunding of the money paid for board during the ten days' quarantine, and also other expenses caused by the delay, on the ground that there had been a clear violation of agreement with the public.

"The reader who desires fuller information on this subject will do well to consult 'Judge and Jury,' by Benjamin Vaughan Abbott, and 'The Law of the Road, or Wrongs and Rights of a Traveler,' by R. Vashon Rogers. 'Judge and Jury' endeavors to show the law of the land on topics of general public interest, and about sixty pages of the book are devoted to travel and transportation. 'The Law of the Road' is in the form of a story, introducing all the incidents and accidents of travel, and their legal aspects. In both books the decisions of the courts are cited, so that they can be readily found. 'Lawson on Common Carriers' is also recommended as an excellent authority on matters indicated by its title."

  CHAPTER XXVI.

WILDERNESS AND FRONTIER TRAVEL.

The rapid extension of the railway across the American Continent, and the construction of lateral lines, have greatly diminished the volume of travel with wagons, and other primitive modes, but have by no means made an end of them. There is yet a large area without settlements, and unprovided with the iron road, and for many years to come the wagon of the emigrant and explorer will wend its way through the wilderness. For those who contemplate pushing beyond the borders of civilization, the writer presents this chapter.

The means of transportation available in frontier or wilderness regions are wagons and pack-animals; the former are adapted to most open and prairie countries, but in mountain regions it often happens that the wagon cannot be used. The pack-animals in general use are horses and mules; the latter are the surest of foot, especially the Mexican variety, which is smaller than the American mule, and can live where the latter would starve. Where snow is to be encountered horses are to be preferred, as the horse will plod on through the drifts long after the mule has given up in despair. The writer of "How to Travel" has an unhappy recollection of crossing the divide between the Arkansas and Platte rivers in the winter of 1860, when paths had to be trodden in the snow for the mules before they would consent to go ahead. Our horses kept on through snow that was nearly thirty inches deep, but even when they had made a very good path it was difficult to urge the mules forward.

The best pack-saddles for either horses or mules are of the "Grimsley" pattern; they are open at the top, and covered with rawhide that shrinks while drying, and is thus drawn straight. The Grimsley fits well on the animal's back, and saves it from soreness longer than any other form of saddle in use. The Indians have pack-saddles in the form of "saw-horses," and the Mexicans use a leather sack like a mattress, which is stuffed with hay, and has no projections for fastening the load in place. In putting it on a mule they draw the belt so tight that it seems to threaten to cut the poor brute in two, and certainly must give him great pain. All the forms of pack-saddles, as well as the best riding-saddles for frontier use, have broad girths of braided horse-hair, that are far less likely to slip than any girth of leather.

The proper adjustment of a load on a pack-saddle is a work of art that can only be accomplished after long experience. In the first place, the load must be accurately balanced, so that it will not have a tendency to turn over, and, secondly, it must be lashed to prevent its working 'loose, and scattering' itself along the trail. It is not agreeable to find soon after leaving camp that your lashings have loosened, and the load, which was your pride at starting, is being distributed by the wayside. To add to the perplexity, the mule invariably helps the business along by executing a waltz, and kicking at imaginary dogs above the tree-tops. Men have been known to use profane language on such occasions, but a mule never does.

At night the packs should be placed in a row and covered with the saddles and saddle-blankets, to protect them from possible dew or rain, and have them convenient for loading up in the morning. Great care should be exercised to prevent the backs of the animals from getting sore; the best preventive is a well-fitting saddle, but in any case the backs of the beasts should be closely watched. If a horse or mule is found to be sweating when unsaddled, it is well to allow the saddle-blanket to remain until the skin is dry. Grease can be applied to a spot that shows a tendency to soreness, and a piece of bacon-rind may be tied on and left over night. It is not a good plan to wash an animal's back immediately after unsaddling, and while he is hot and sweating; the back should be allowed to cool completely before water is applied.

A very important member of a pack-train, especially when it is composed of mules, is the madrina, or bell-mare. She must be chosen for her dignity and docility, and be ornamented with a bell like the ordinary cow-bell of the eastern States. Its tinkle is a great attraction to the mules, and wherever she goes they are sure to follow. When the train is on the march she should be kept in front, and when rivers are to be crossed she must be sent over first. The affection shown by mules for the bell-mare is often very touching; they will crowd around her and struggle for the privilege of rubbing their noses against her sides, and, if she is accompanied by a colt, they show as much fondness for it as girls do for a baby. Many are the stories told by old plainsmen about the bell-mare, and the devotion of the rest of the animals to her; she saves a vast deal of trouble, both in camp and on the march, as she keeps the herd together when all other means would fail.

For wagon travel on long and rough roads, where grain cannot be obtained, oxen are preferable to mules or horses, as they have more endurance, though they move more slowly. They keep in good condition where horses and mules would give out, and in cases of emergency, where the animals must be slaughtered for food, they make orthodox and more attractive beef. Fifteen to twenty miles is a good day's journey for an ox-team, while horses and mules can make from twenty to thirty, if the roads are fairly good. Oxen are less liable to be stampeded by Indians, and are easier to keep from straying; with a few days' training they can be made to work under the pack-saddle if necessary, and in South Africa pack-oxen are in general use. Anderson, who traveled in South Africa, said he had an ox named 'Spring' that he rode for two thousand miles, and found him an excellent beast under the saddle. It is well for a long journey to have some cows along, as they find their own food, and give milk, and, in emergencies, they may be worked in the teams like oxen.

Wagons should be as light as possible, consistent with strength, and the wood should be perfectly seasoned, in order to resist the effects of the changes of the atmosphere. The wagon-body should be water-tight, so that it will preserve its contents when fording streams, and it can also be used as a boat where a river is too deep to be forded. There should be a joint in the pole where it enters the hounds, and the coupling pole should be movable; the joint will often prevent the breaking of the hounds, and the movable perch enables a part of the wagon to be converted into a cart, when a broken wheel or axle prevents the further use of the entire vehicle. Every wagon should have strong bows and a double cover of thick osnaburg to protect the contents from the rain and dew. The bolts that connect the running-gear should be riveted at the ends to prevent the nuts from falling off, as the loss of a nut in the wilderness often leads to the loss of the entire wagon.

The load of the wagon should be closely and securely packed, and everything arranged to prevent chafing in the many jolts of the road. Provisions for the journey should be in the most compact form, and not a superfluous ounce of stuff should be taken along. Bacon and flour are best carried in strong sacks, and all boxes and barrels must be rejected, except one or two light flour barrels for getting water. Sugar and salt must be in canvas bags with an outer covering of India-rubber or oil-cloth, to prevent the moisture reaching the contents, and tea and coffee require air-tight cans for their preservation. Desiccated and canned vegetables are excellent; the former deserve the preference on account of their more condensed form. Citric acid and the essence of lemons should be taken on long journeys where fresh vegetables cannot be obtained, as they are an efficient anti-scorbutic, and it is well to have a few simple medicines in a small box that ought to be kept in a corner of one of the wagons, where it can be easily reached.

The personal outfit of a campaigner in the wilderness is not very elaborate. White shirts should be discarded, and blue or red flannel worn instead. The coat should be short and of some strong woolen material, and the overcoat heavy without being stiff. The trowsers should be thick and soft, and if the wearer intends to do any saddle-riding he should have his nether garments "half-soled," or reënforced with buckskin where they touch the saddle, and thus preserve them from wear. An outfit for a campaign of a hundred days might be about as follows:—

Overcoat, coat, and soft hat, one each, two flannel over-shirts, two woolen undershirts, two pairs thick cotton drawers, four pairs woolen socks, two pairs cotton socks, three pairs shoes, one pair strong and high boots, one India-rubber poncho, and six colored silk handkerchiefs. Then add castile soap for toilet purposes, and three pounds bar soap for clothes, comb and brush, and tooth-brushes, and a quantity of needles, thread, pins, buttons, beeswax, etc., in a small bag of buckskin. By the way, don't forget a good quantity of buckskin and an awl; they come handy in many ways for repairing harness, clothing, saddles, shoes, and the like, and you will greatly miss them if you forget them till too late.

For bed and bedding you want two blankets, a quilt, and a pillow, the whole wrapped in a cover of India-rubber or painted canvas, which can be spread on the ground at night to keep out the moisture. For dining-room and kitchen you want for every six persons a camp-kettle, a coffee-pot, a mess, a frying, and a bake-pan, all of wrought-iron. Have an extra camp-kettle for accidents, and a bucket of galvanized-iron for bringing water; don't trust to wood, as it is liable to many accidents from which iron is secure. Your judgment will tell you about knives, forks, and spoons; cups and plates should be of strong tin, and the handles of the former riveted on, never soldered. Pepper and matches should be in glass bottles, with close corks, and kept in the safest place. Every horse and mule should have at least two lariats, or picket-ropes, and every wagon needs an axe, and a spade, and some S's, and extra chain-links for repairs.

So much for the outfit, to which you will add the firearms that suit your fancy and the requirements of the region you are about to visit. Those that use fixed ammunition are undoubtedly to be preferred, if you can be sure of a sufficient supply of cartridges at all times, but where this is not the case, it is best to adhere to the old-fashioned Colt's revolver, loading with loose powder and ball. A Remington, Winchester, or other cartridge rifle may be carried for rapid work in fighting Indians, or killing large game, and a Colt's revolver, with loose ammunition, will be a convenient thing for every day use and ornament.

Now we are off, and must look out for ourselves. Provisions for our sustenance are in the wagons, and we must think of food and water for our riding and team animals. Make short and easy drives for the first few days, till the teams get accustomed to their work, and then we will increase the distance; we will not make more than half a dozen miles the first day, and even if we only go a mile or two, and camp just outside the town, we shall have gained so much. We will make our marches in the early part of the day, have a long rest at noon, especially if we are using oxen, and then go on again till sunset. We must always camp near grass and water, and it is better to make a very long drive than not to do so; if possible, we should have grass and water at the noon halt, but, in case of necessity, we can do without water, and then lengthen the afternoon march so as to reach it.

An old traveler will find water where the novice declares it does not exist; none of the rules are absolutely infallible, and the shrewdest will sometimes be disappointed. Observe the fresh tracks of animals, and the flight of birds, and they will frequently lead to water, especially the tracks of deer and mustangs. Examine the dry beds of streams, and if they are sandy push a long stick or cane as far into the sand as it will go; if you find it moist when you withdraw it, you can be certain of water. Then dig a hole with your spade, and use an empty flour-barrel for a curb, and if the hole is deep you can place one barrel above another. In a little while the water will enter the barrel, and you may draw from this improvised well all you need for your party and your stock.

In countries where streams and springs are scarce, water may be caught during showers by means of tents, awnings, wagon-covers, and even by rubber overcoats. Drinking-water may be obtained where there are heavy dews by dragging a blanket over the grass, and then wringing it out; it is hardly necessary to add that the blanket should be a clean one. Water from stagnant pools may be purified by thorough boiling, and then mixing with powdered charcoal; in a muddy pond, it may be partially cleansed by boring small holes in the lower half of a barrel, filling it two-thirds full with layers of moss or grass, with alternate layers of clean sand, if the latter can be had. Then place the barrel in the pond till the top is nearly level with the surface; as the water enters the barrel it will pass through the improvised filter; and be found far purer than in its original state.

Always form your camp by the side of a river or stream of some kind, if it is possible to do so, as you thereby make sure of plenty of water for your stock; if in a hostile country, where attacks from Indians are possible, have an eye to the defences of the position. A peninsula in a river is the best place, as the water forms a natural fortification, and you have only the neck of the peninsula to look after; if you cannot find such a spot, take the place that most nearly resembles it, and if you cannot do better, have the river or stream on one side of you. If you camp away from water, select a spot so as to have the crest of a hill on one side of you, where a lookout can be stationed.

It is the custom for large parties traveling on the western plains of the United States to arrange their wagons in a circle, or an oval, with an opening at each end, at every halt. A yard is thus formed, into which the stock may be driven to be harnessed or yoked. It may be enclosed at night, or when hostile attacks are made, and, finally, the yard, or corral, is an excellent redoubt from which to make a defense against Indians. Many a train has been captured by neglecting this precaution, and many another saved by observing it. No good captain of a train will ever allow it to go into camp even for an hour without forming the wagons into a corral. When the stock is driven in, the openings at the ends of the corral may be closed by the simple operation of stretching a chain across.

Where there is a scarcity of water, you will find you can get along without it for many purposes for which at home it is considered absolutely necessary. All your cooking and dining utensils can be cleansed thoroughly without it; knives and forks by thrusting them several times into the ground till every vestige of their recent use is removed, and plates and pans by means of wisps of grass and dry earth, joined to what is known in the Eastern States as "elbow-grease." Great care should be exercised in regions where water contains alkaline matter, as it induces diseases that require a long time for curing.

Fuel is the great need of a traveler next to water. In a wooded country he has no trouble in finding it, but he should never waste it, no matter how plentiful. Never build a fire in a hollow log, or one that is partially decayed, but clear a space of ground, and roll or carry your fuel to it. When you move on in the morning put out the fire, or encircle it, so that it cannot by any possibility spread and cause damage. The danger of a hollow log is that the fire may smolder there for days, or even weeks, and then break out; if the season is dry, and the forests extensive, many acres and miles of country may be burned over, and perhaps human lives may fall victims to your carelessness.

In the open and treeless country the wilderness-traveler is often hard pressed for the material for a fire. The most commonly used article is the dry dung of buffaloes, known to the Canadian voyageurs as bois de vache. It makes a hot fire, with very little smoke, and as the animals haunt the valleys of the streams in search of the best grass, they leave this material in the region of the camping grounds where it is most needed. It is excellent for tinder, and with a burning-glass and a piece of buffalo-chip you can get a fire in a few moments, provided the sun is shining. In many parts of the world the dried excrement of grass-feeding animals forms the only fuel of the inhabitants or of travelers.

If you sleep near a fire at night, and the weather is so cold as to render the heat desirable, always lie with your feet towards it; as long as the feet are kept warm the rest of the body is likely to be so, and with cold feet no one can be comfortable. Unless the surrounding circumstances compel you to sleep with your boots or shoes on be sure to remove them before you go to bed, as their absence makes your sleep far more refreshing than it is with them.

When you arrive at a stream, on whose banks you intend to camp, but which you must cross before proceeding on your journey, make the crossing before you halt for the night. Streams rise suddenly, and it often happens that what was a tiny rivulet at sunset is a roaring torrent on the following morning, and it may be a day, or several days, before it subsides. The rule here given is followed by all experienced travelers on the plains of the great west.

When you break camp in the morning one of the party should remain behind, after the wagons have moved away, and carefully examine the ground to see that nothing has been forgotten. The members of the party may take turns in this duty, or it may be assigned to one person who should be held responsible for whatever may be lost by forgetfulness. It will often happen that some article of camp equipage has been left behind, and its absence is unknown until camp is formed, at the end of the day's march. A thought B had put it in the wagon, and B was certain that A had attended to it, or at least he should have done so. Many a quarrel has been saved by this simple precaution, and also many a deprivation, as the loss of a camp-kettle or frying-pan, when it cannot be replaced, is a very serious matter. Since the writer gave up the wilderness for civilized travel it has always been his custom, after his trunks have been packed and locked at a hotel, to renew his practice of olden times and go through his room with the utmost care, examining every drawer of bureau or washstand, and looking into every closet. Candor compels him to say that once in a while he finds articles of greater or less value that but for this rule he would have left behind.

One of the perplexities of travel in wild countries is the passage of rivers. Shallow streams can be forded, and if the current is not strong a depth of five feet may be passed without serious difficulty. Many streams are full of quicksand, and in such case the rule is to keep your team in constant motion after it enters the water. As long as a man keeps moving on quicksand there is no danger, but whenever he stops his feet begin to sink, and if he remains stationary he will speedily find himself beyond his depth. The same conditions are true of saddle or draught animals, and of the wheels of wagons. Where there are quicksands horses should be led across, and to insure their going steadily forward they should be allowed to drink all they wish before entering the stream. Horses and oxen are more certain to go ahead without halting than mules; the latter are apt to lie down and refuse to move, exactly as they do in deep snow.

In a difficult ford the teams had better be doubled. The driver should stand on the front of the wagon with a reliable whip in his hand, and be assisted by one or more mounted men on each side of the team. It is well also to have a mounted man ride ahead with a long lariat on picket rope attached to the forward leaders of the team, so as to direct their course. In a swift current the ford should be made obliquely downwards if possible, so that the current can assist the progress of the wagons.

In crossing a stream too deep for fording, boats or rafts may be improvised from wagon beds, or they may be built on the spot. If the current is swift a ferry must be made, and for this purpose (after the spot for crossing has been selected) an expert swimmer goes over with a fish-line or other slender cord in his mouth. By means of this cord a strong lariat can be drawn over; it should be twice as long as the width of the river, and fastened on each shore to a tree, or a wagon tongue set in the ground if there are no trees. To make a ferry-boat from a wagon-bed put it in the center of a wagon-cover or other strong canvas, and then bring the edges up over the sides to the top; the leakage will then be so slight that a man with a cup can easily keep it free from water. The contents of the wagons can be passed in this boat by means of the ferry rope, the animals can swim over, and the empty wagons may be passed by fastening them down to the axles, and attaching ropes to the tongue and also to the rear. They are then drawn over by the men on the farther bank, and kept from drifting by means of the rear rope.

If you are about to swim a stream with a horse it is not a good plan to remain in the saddle, as your weight presses heavily on the animal and restricts his movements. It is better to dismount, tie a cord eight or ten feet long to his bridle, drive him into the stream, and then grasp his tail and be towed over. If he tries to turn back you can direct him with the cord or by splashing water towards his head. If you do remain in the saddle give him a free rein, and do not pull in the least, except when it is necessary to guide him. Horses and oxen are better swimmers than mules; the latter are easily frightened and may suddenly turn down stream, refusing all attempts to bring them to land. They are also more liable to be drowned, and great care should be taken that they do not get water in their ears; as soon as you see a mule droop his ears you may know that he is in danger, and the water should be removed immediately on reaching land, if you are so fortunate as to get him there. For this reason never splash water towards a mule's head, and do not make him jump into the water if possible to avoid doing so.

An excellent ferry-boat may be made from a green or soaked hide of ox or buffalo, or better still, from two or more hides. You will generally find willows growing on the banks of the streams; gather some of the smaller ones, sharpen the butts and drive them into the ground, so as to form an oval figure of the size of your intended boat. Then bring the tops together, weave slender willow rods among the larger ones till the structure resembles a basket with a round bottom, and have a specially strong willow running around all of them near the ground, and firmly fastened, to make the gunwale of your boat. If your boat is made of one hide stretch it over the basket and sew it to the large rod around the top, and let the whole thing stand a few hours in the sun to get dry; then cut off the rods where they enter the ground and you have a boat that will carry four or five hundred pounds with ease. For a larger boat, with two or more hides, you want a more pretentious frame, a stout pole for a keel, and two smaller poles for gunwales. This water vehicle is known on the plains as a bull-boat, and can be easily constructed, provided the traveler has a supply of willows, some green or soaked hides, and a fair amount of common sense. Where a traveler expects to encounter streams that cannot be forded he would do well to carry two or three dried hides, and then he will have the material for covering a bull-boat always at hand.

While we are speaking of hides, another use of them may be mentioned. It often happens that emigrants, or settlers in a new country, wish to salt a quantity of beef or other meat but have no cask or other receptacle in which to place it. In this emergency dig a hole in the ground, of such dimensions that the hide of the slaughtered animal will just line it; then place the hide in the hole, with the flesh side up, fasten the edges to the ground with wooden pegs, and you have a salting cask that you may use, sans peur et sans reproache. An animal's hide is also useful to bake him in, and in this way: Skin and dress your game and then sew what you intend to bake into the hide. Build a good fire in a hole in the ground with a sort of rude oven of stones around it, and keep it going till the ground and stones are hot. Now sweep out the ashes, throw in your roasting piece, cover it with dry or green leaves, put back the hot embers as quickly as possible, and then continue the fire long enough to cook the meat beneath it. The writer has practiced this form of cookery on several occasions and found the result very satisfactory.

If your supply of fuel is limited, and you have much cooking to do, dig a narrow trench for the fire and place your kettles and pots above it; make the trench with one end towards the wind, and build a small chimney of stones or earth at the other end. Another way is to dig a round hole a foot deep, and place the kettles in a circle on its border, half of each kettle being on the ground and half over the fire. If you lose all your kettles and frying-pans it is well to know that you can improvise a frying-pan by taking two large flat stones and laying one above another, with a few pebbles between to keep them apart. Build a fire around them, and when they are well heated sweep away all the ashes and put your slices of meat between the stones; you will be well satisfied with the frying process that ensues.

But space is limited and we must pause. The writer could go on for many more pages, giving advice to travelers in the wilderness, of varying degrees of usefulness, and mainly drawn from his own experience as a frontier campaigner years and years ago. But the demands of the printer, and the interests of the non-migrating reader, forbid an extension of the chapter. If more on the same subject is desired it will be found in an eminently practical little volume entitled "The Prairie Traveler," by Captain (since General) R. B. Marcy; the author is thoroughly familiar with the subject, as any old officer of the army can testify.

HANOVER

Fire Insurance Company,

No. 181 Broadway, New York.

BENJAMIN S. WALCOTT, President.

I. REMSEN LANE, Vice-President and Secretary.

CHARLES L. ROE, Assistant Secretary.

Chesapeake & Ohio Railway.

LAID WITH STEEL RAIL.

The only route between the East and West via White Sulphur and various other Springs and Pleasure Resorts in the beautiful and picturesque mountains of Virginia and West Virginia.

Regular and Excursion Tickets on sale at all principal Ticket Offices throughout the United States at lowest rates. Sleeping Cars and all modern improvements.

☞ See Circulars of the Grand Centennial Celebration at Yorktown, Va., in October, 1881.

H. W. CARR, Gen'l Eastern Agent,
229 Broadway, New York.

CONWAY R. HOWARD, Gen'l Pass. and Ticket Agent,
RICHMOND, VA.

FISK & HATCH,