Closely allied to the Masuri is an amphistome which I originally named Gastrodiscus Sonsinoii, but which should be altered as opposite (Fig. 62). It exceeds 1/2″ in length and 1/3″ in breadth (16 mm. long by 10 broad). Its discovery by Dr Sonsino was one of the results of his examination of sixteen carcases of solipeds that died during the Egyptian plague of 1876. Specimens having been forwarded to Panceri, Von Siebold, Leuckart, and myself, most of us at once agreed that the worm was new to science. Pointing to the genera, Notocotylus and Aspidocotylus, I explained its close affinity to the latter more particularly. Whilst Notocotylus has fifty supplementary suckers on its back, Aspidocotylus has nearly two hundred small ventral suckers seated on a convex disk. In Gastrodiscus a still larger number of suckerlets are placed in the deep concavity of a large gastric disk formed by the outstretched and inrolled margins of the body of the parasite. Zoologically speaking, the odd thing about this singular worm lies in the circumstance that its nearest fluke-relation, so to speak (Aspidocotylus mutablis), dwells in a spiny-finned fish (Cataphractus); and this fish itself forms an aberrant genus of the family to which it belongs (Triglidæ). From what has been said it will be seen that our Gastrodiscus must not be confounded with Cotylegaster cochleariform (or with its synonym Aspidogaster cochleariformis), to which parasite Von Siebold was, I believe, induced to refer it. Like most of the true amphistomes, the worm in question infests the intestines. Although discovered by Sonsino at Zagazig in plague-affected corpses, there is no reason to suppose that this helminth was in any way etiologically connected with the Egyptian epizoöty.

The tapeworms of the horse are of great interest practically. Excluding Sander’s Tænia zebræ, which was doubtless T. plicata, at least five species have been described, but they may probably be all reduced to two distinct forms and their varieties. Whilst Tænia plicata acquires a length of three feet, the strobile of T. perfoliata never exceeds five inches. The lobes at the base of the head in the latter are distinctive. The former is usually confined to the small intestine, but the perfoliate worm often occupies the cæcum and colon in great numbers. As regards T. mamillana, I may say that neither Gurlt’s descriptions nor his figures are convincing. The worm is, I believe, identical with T. perfoliata. In like manner, after going into the matter with some care, I am accustomed to speak of Mégnin’s T. inerme as T. perfoliata, var. Mégnini, and of Baillet’s T. innomé as T. perfoliata, var. Bailletii. I have examined great numbers of equine tapeworms, but whether my determinations on this point are correct or not, the case recorded by Mégnin is of remarkable interest. Clinically, indeed, it is not entirely unique, since a somewhat similar case has been recorded by Mr Poulton. In Mégnin’s equine patient the autopsy revealed the presence of 200 bots, 153 lumbricoids, upwards of 400 oxyurides, and several thousand palisade worms, besides numerous tapeworms. In Mr Poulton’s patient large quantities of tapeworms were found in the duodenum (and in large sacs of the walls of other sections of the small intestine), and also myriads of the little four-spined strongyle, in addition to about a score of palisade worms. Both Mégnin’s and Poulton’s patients died suddenly; but the great interest attaching to Mégnin’s case arises from the boldness of manner in which the French savant interprets the phenomena of the intestinal sacculation in relation to the development of the tapeworms. M. Mégnin assumes that the sacs are due to the formation of polycephalous or cœnuroid scolices. Without contradicting Mégnin’s ingenious interpretation of the phenomena in question, I may say that the difficulty I have in accepting his view arises from the circumstance of the rarity of the occurrence of these sacs. In Poulton’s case of Tænia perfoliata, the sacs were present, and they were productive of similar results; but in the scores of other recorded cases of sudden death from the same species of tapeworm (as published by Mr Rees Lloyd, and myself), the presence of such sac-formations is not once mentioned. To be sure, their presence may have been overlooked, but this is scarcely likely, seeing the great care taken by Mr Lloyd in conducting the autopsies. I cannot dwell upon the subject at greater length. The presence of so many sexually-immature strobiles, combined with the existence of the intestinal wall sacs, certainly does seem to point to the existence of cœnuroid bladder-worms, but until the existence of the polycephalous scolex be actually demonstrated one must be cautious in concluding “that the horse nourishes at the same time the strobila and scolex of the unarmed tapeworm.” Practically, we now know for certain that not only are tapeworms capable of producing a fatal issue in isolated cases, such as those recorded by Mégnin and Poulton, but that they may also be productive of disastrous epizoöty, as proved by Mr Lloyd in the case of Welsh mountain ponies.

In this connection I may perhaps be pardoned for saying that this discovery in 1875 was one of the practical results directly issuing from the publication of my ‘Manual’ in 1874. The attention of the veterinary profession having been called to the subject of parasitic epizoöty, Mr Lloyd was the first to make search for helminths amongst some few of the carcases of the hundred and more equine animals that perished in South Wales. Two totally distinct epizoötics prevailed. In the Beacons district tapeworms alone were the cause of death, whilst in the Deangunid district scores of animals perished from strongyles. In another district a hundred animals perished from tapeworms. These parasites I identified as examples of Strongylus tetracanthus and Tænia perfoliata. Taking all the helminthological facts together we have made a great advance both in hippopathology and equine epidemiology; and, as I observed at the time, the scepticism which not unnaturally still exists (in reference to entozoa as a frequent cause of death amongst animals, both wild and domesticated) will sooner or later be dispersed by that wider attention to the subject which our labors have invoked.

In relation to equine disease the facts brought forward are too important to be dismissed in a single paragraph. As two distinct kinds of parasitic epizoöty were discovered, the circumstances connected with their separate detection must be noticed at greater length. Further on, I shall again deal with the helminthiasis due to strongyles. It was on the 17th of April, 1874, that I received from Mr Lloyd, of Dowlais, Glamorganshire, a communication calling my attention to a fatal epizoötic affecting ponies. He supposed the outbreak to be due to parasites. On the following day I also received a parcel containing portions of the lower intestines, which had been removed from one of the diseased animals. The victim in question, a pony mare, had died on or about the 12th of April, at Llangunider, Breconshire. Mr Lloyd states in his letter that he “presumes” that the pony’s death was caused “by the presence of small worms,” examples of which he now forwarded for the purposes of identification and investigation. He also sent some equine tapeworms. Mr Lloyd had already inferred that his small worms were “strongyles;” and in regard to the tapeworms he says:—“This species of parasite has caused, or is supposed to have caused, the death of at least one hundred mountain ponies.” The investigation being immediately proceeded with, I may so far anticipate my record of the results obtained as to state at once that the facts observed by me confirmed Mr Lloyd’s suspicions—proving, beyond a doubt, that the pony above mentioned had succumbed to injuries inflicted by myriads of minute strongyles. Not only did I find the fæcal matter of the colon loaded with mature strongyles, but the walls of the intestine were also occupied with encysted and immature forms of the same nematode species. To such an extent had infection taken place, that I was enabled to count no less than thirty-nine strongyles within the space of the one fourth of a square inch. All parts of the sections of the colon under examination were almost equally invaded; so that, taking the average, I am clearly within the mark in saying that every square inch of the gut yielded at least one hundred parasites. The walls of the entire colon must therefore have been occupied by tens of thousands of these creatures, to say nothing of the scarcely less numerous examples lying free or lodged within the fæcal contents of the bowel.

In a second and more extended communication, sent in reply to inquiries as to the cestodes, Mr Lloyd (whose letter I have abridged) writes:—“I regret that I cannot give you very full particulars respecting the tapeworms. During the last twelve months mountain ponies grazing on the lower districts of Breconshire, which comprise some of the highest mountains in South Wales, have been dying in great numbers, from what the farmers indefinitely term inflammation. From what I have seen and heard, it appears that there are three causes of death, the tapeworm, the small worms (which I presumed were a kind of strongyle), and catarrhal disorders, such as have been common among horses of late. By far the greater number of deaths (from what I can glean) have been caused by the parasites. In the Ystradfellte or Penderin districts there has been no investigation, although the disease has reigned there for a longer period, about eighteen months, with (from what I have heard) a larger number of deaths than elsewhere; so I shall let these remain for the present, as I have not had an opportunity to see or hear anything authentic about them. In the Talybont district the cause appears to be the small worms (like those I sent). The owner of the animals said that a month ago, when he went to look after his ponies, they were appearing quite well, and looked as well as he could expect them at this season, but he was astonished to find some of them a fortnight ago looking very lean and wasting, and he thought that the weather was the cause of it, yet resolved to see them oftener; the next time he saw them one was dead, and knowing of the loss in the neighbourhood, and fearing he would be a sufferer, he sought aid, applying to me. When I arrived two days following two more were dead, and they presented an emaciated appearance. The post-mortem examination revealed a healthy condition of the whole of the intestines, save slight thickening of some parts of the colon and rectum, which contained, enclosed in the mucous membrane, in cysts or minute sacs, worms coiled upon themselves. Each cyst, containing one worm, was best seen by transmitted light. The colon was nearly full of fæcal matter, which contained thousands of parasites scarcely visible. The largest were very few in number, not exceeding an inch in length and barely one sixteenth in diameter at the middle portion. They somewhat tapered at both ends. The cæcum was half full of fluid fæces, containing no visible worms; the rectum, with fæces of natural consistence, the examination of which revealed only two or three evident worms; so that the examination of fæces of living animals giving results like this would not assist the diagnosis, unless suspected. Small intestines—these latter contained about a dozen bots, which were nearly free, but had pierced to the muscular coat. I should think they had participated in the disease. The right lung had been slightly congested; nothing else abnormal to be seen. Possibly congestion of lungs would arise from the distress when pained with worms, for the pony was found on its back with its head in a thicket—it had not appeared to have struggled—with its teeth firmly closed.

“Respecting the animals affected with Tænia, it is remarkable that, as a rule, they are in fair condition. The average time they appear to be troubled with the worms is two months, and the symptoms observed have been many. They are at first seen to be unable to keep up with the other ponies, extending the head and turning the upper lip up, rubbing the quarters, staring coat, suddenly appearing distracted, seizing turf in mouthfuls when being griped or pained, others running away as fast as they can go, or rolling and kicking on the ground for five or ten minutes, then walking away as if nothing had happened, if coming down a slope quickly almost sure to fall headlong, easier caught, not unfrequently coughing, groaning noise, appetite good, and, what is peculiar in some of them, lameness of one of the hind limbs, mostly the near hind leg, with slight knuckling over at fetlock.

“Post-mortem appearance.—Abdominal viscera normal, save rectum, which is in some places slightly congested; colon nearly full of fæces, no worms; cæcum, in which worms are alone found, is nearly full of fæcal matter of thicker consistence than usual, and nearly half made up of worms; stomach half full of partly digested food; heart and lungs healthy; Schneiderian membrane injected; mucous membrane of trachea and part of larger bronchiæ of a more or less livid colour (which may be owing to asphyxia); corner of tongue bitten off; mouth very close.

“Several animals were found at times lying dead together.

“Of the Tænia as many as three or four ponies, which some hours previous had been seen grazing unaffected, were found dead on the same spot; and this to my own knowledge, one farmer having lost ten.

“Of the small worms I have been told by a farmer that in his district one of his neighbours had lost twelve ponies.”

As I had partly misunderstood my informant’s original statement, Mr Lloyd, in a third communication, repeated the evidence, emphatically reminding me that “the ponies affected with tapeworms are in a district six or seven miles distant from those affected with strongyles. Those troubled with tapeworms are in good condition, as a rule, up to death; they are noticed to be troubled generally for two months previous to death, and may be seen at one hour grazing and apparently well, and dead or dying the next hour. As many as four have been found dead at the same spot. In this (the Beacons) district the tapeworms alone have been found and not a single strongyle. In the Deangunid district strongyles only have been found, such as I sent you. The ponies have been noticed ailing for three or four weeks, becoming rapidly emaciated and dying from exhaustion. In tapeworm-affected animals the cæcum is nearly half full of these parasites. The animals thus affected are on the red sandstone formation, whilst those affected with strongyles occur on the limestone formation—the latter affording the drier situation.”

Being on the teaching staff of the Royal Veterinary College I was particularly glad to have the authority of an experienced veterinary practitioner to testify to the injuriousness of Tænia perfoliata in the horse. Over and over again I had pointed out to the members of my class the desirability of examining the fæces of solipeds where obscure symptoms of intestinal irritation existed. Not only so; at the request of friends I wrote out prescriptions suitable for equine patients suffering from tapeworm. I felt the more indebted to Mr Lloyd, inasmuch as his practical views served to strengthen the propositions I had advanced in connection with internal parasites as a frequent cause of epizoötics. My views were criticised at the time with a vigour and warmth well worthy of those who are afraid of advancing epidemiological science too rapidly; but it seems that so far from my having overstepped the bounds of moderation in this matter I had, in reality, been too cautious. Certainly it can now no longer be said that “the symptoms created by tapeworms in the horse are of little or no consequence.” Here, therefore, I repeat, we have made a clear and rapid advance in our knowledge of helminthic disease; and from the impulse thus given to hippopathology it is only reasonable to look for still further advances in veterinary medicine. By-and-by, the scepticism which not unnaturally exists in reference to entozoa as a frequent cause of death amongst animals, will be dispersed by even yet clearer enunciations regarding the important part these parasites play in the destruction of our most valuable creatures.

Apart from the question incidentally raised by Mégnin as to their origin and mode of development, the presence of larval cestodes in horses cannot be passed over. The common hydatid (Echinococcus veterinorum), though not of frequent occurrence, is occasionally productive of fatal consequences. Very interesting cases are recorded by Messrs Henderson and Kirkman, aided by the valuable comments of Professor Varnell. Mr Hutchinson observed an hydatid in a horse’s eye, and Mr Vincent noticed lameness, as resulting from hydatids. But one of the most interesting cases of hydatids in solipeds is that described by Professor Huxley, from a zebra that died at the Zoological Gardens in 1852. As stated in Huxley’s elaborate memoir (freely quoted in the first part of this work), the liver was found to be “one mass of cysts, varying in size from a child’s head downwards.” The zebra’s death was purely accidental, as it broke its neck while at play in the paddock. The long bladder-worm of the horse (Cysticercus fistularia) is entirely unknown to me, and, as before suggested, may be a mere variety of the C. tenuicollis of ruminants. An authentic instance of the occurrence of the gid hydatid (Cœnurus cerebralis) in the horse is recorded by Gurlt. Lastly, in relation to the question of food, it is worthy of remark that whilst beef, veal, pork, and even mutton, are apt to be measled, the muscle-flesh of horses is not liable to be infested by Cysticerci. This is a fact in favor of hippophagy.

The nematodes of solipeds are very numerous, and first in importance must be placed the palisade worm (Strongylus armatus). This worm was known to Ruysch (1721). The old naturalists recognised two varieties (major and minor). These we now know to be merely the final stages of growth of one and the same entozoon; and in both stages the worm inflicts severe injury upon the bearer, chiefly, however, whilst wandering through the tissues. The palisade worm has acquired notoriety principally on account of its causing verminous aneurism, nevertheless, this pathological change is not, in itself, the most disastrous evil produced by the worm. In the adult state the female reaches a length of two inches, whilst the male rarely exceeds an inch and a half. The posterior ray of the caudal membrane or hood of the male is three-cleft. In both sexes the head is armed with numerous, closely-set, upright denticles, presenting the appearance of the teeth of a circular saw or trephine. The eggs are elliptical and somewhat constricted at the centre, their contents forming embryos after expulsion from both parent-worm and host. The larvæ are rhabditiform, changing their skin, in moist earth, in about three weeks, at which time they part with their long tails. According to Leuckart, they pass into the body of an intermediate bearer before entering the stomach of the definitive or equine host. From the alimentary canal they pass to the blood-vessels, causing aneurism, and thence they seek to regain the intestinal canal, where they arrive at sexual maturity. It is during their migratory efforts that they give rise to dangerous symptoms in the bearer, not unfrequently causing the death of young animals, especially yearlings. In the adult state the worm is also dangerous to the bearer, as it produces severe wounds by anchoring to the mucous membrane of the gut.

The proofs we possess as to the frequency of abdominal, especially mesenteric, aneurism from this source are overwhelming. Prof. Brüchmüller estimated the percentage of aneurismal horses, six years old and upwards, at 91 per cent., and it is a matter of common observation in veterinary dissecting rooms that verminous aneurism is rarely or never absent in the ass. Professors Dick, Simonds, Pritchard, Williams, and many other English and Scotch veterinarians of eminence, have all borne testimony of this kind, and, for myself, I may say that one of the earliest pathological appearances with which I became familiar, some thirty years back, was that presented by mesenteric arterial disease of the ass. In relation to fatal colics in the horse the study of verminous aneurism is of the highest moment. On this subject Prof. Friedberger has published some valuable lectures, in which, amongst other points, he incidentally remarks upon the comparative freedom of military horses from aneurism as compared with ordinary laboring horses. This arises partly from the fact that the latter are not cared for to the same extent, dietetically and otherwise; and, moreover, cavalry horses are, as a rule, younger than ordinary working animals. Whilst Friedberger, in his suggestive brochure, does ample justice to the writings of his colleague, Dr Bollinger, it may be said, in like manner, that he does not fail to recognise his great indebtedness to the researches of Leuckart. So practically important, however, do I deem Bollinger’s summary of the whole subject in relation to the hippopathological aspects of parasitism, that I feel it desirable to record his conclusions at full length. No professional man having any pretensions to a knowledge of the veterinary art—or, for that matter, to parasitism in relation to sanitation—should remain uninformed on this subject. Dr Bollinger’s results are thus stated:

1. The worm aneurism of the visceral arteries of the horse, existing in 90 to 94 per cent. of adult horses, has a general correspondence with the aneurisma verum mixtum of man. It is, however, distinguishable from the same by its seat, cause, character of its walls, contents, and mode of termination. The worm-aneurism arises from a parasitism of the palisade worm (Strongylus armatus), owing to an inflammatory affection of the arterial walls which it causes, and which one may describe as a recurrent traumatic endo-arteritis. This holds good for all the visceral arteries, with the exception of the abdominal aorta, in which an aneurism may arise from local increase of pressure.

2. The formation and further development of the aneurism is also favored by the narrowing of the arterial calibre, which is caused by the inflammatory swelling of its walls, and also by the contemporaneous formation of a thrombus (clot), this latter still further supporting and exciting the inflammation of the inner coat.

3. Whilst the causes above mentioned (and of these more particularly the continued presence of the palisade worms and the plugging of the smaller arteries by thrombi) favor the growth of the worm-aneurism, the small size of the same, notwithstanding the years it has existed, is explained by the considerable hypertrophy of the muscular layer, by the tough fibrous capsule formed in many cases by the connective tissue of the mesentery, and by the adhesion of the intestines to the perpendicular and free-lying anterior mesenteric artery; in particular this last-named circumstance does not allow of any very considerable shortening of the mesenteric artery, which would necessarily be accompanied by considerable dilatation of the arterial tube.

4. The favorite seat of the worm-aneurism is the trunk of the anterior mesenteric artery, directly at its origin from the abdominal aorta. Most frequently that part of the arterial trunk is dilated from which the arteria ilea, cæcales, and colica inferior (arteria ileo-cæco-colica) arise, less frequently the arteria colica superior at its origin, and the arteries of the cæcum and colon in their course in the meso-cæcum and meso-colon. The verminous aneurism also occurs in the cœliac artery (Bauchschlagader), in the posterior mesenteric artery (Gekrös-arterie), in the renal artery, and in the abdominal aorta. A horse is not unfrequently afflicted with several aneurisms of this kind at one and the same time. Thus in one case (described by Bollinger) there were six of these aneurisms affecting the abdominal aorta and its branches in the same horse. The verminous aneurism may occur from the sixth month of life onwards, and with increasing age; the number of horses free from such aneurisms becomes continually smaller.

5. The size of the aneurism varies between that of a pea and that of a man’s head. The dilatation is, as a rule, equal on all sides, the form being usually thumb-shaped or bottle-shaped, passing into that of a cone or long oval figure. This general configuration is principally due to the free and moveable situation of the anterior mesenteric artery.

6. In contrast to aneurisms in man, the walls of the worm-aneurism of the horse are almost without exception indurated. In addition to the mesenteric connective tissue, all the arterial coats, and especially the tunica media, generally take part in this induration. The hypertrophy of the media, which stands unique in respect of what is known of arterial disease, forms a compensatory action of the arterial wall, analogous to the muscular hypertrophy of the heart in valvular disease. This change in the media points to the fact that in the development of aneurism in man the early disturbance of the nutritive process in the tunica media is not a less essential factor than the degeneration of the tunica intima.

The changes in the intima are the least constant. They present all stages of progressive and retrogressive metamorphosis, from simple induration to ulceration and calcification. In the walls of the verminous aneurism one not unfrequently finds all the pathological changes exhibited by atheroma in man. Calcification is a common form of the retrograde process, and, in very rare cases, may pass on to the formation of true bone.

7. In addition to the palisade worms, one almost constantly finds a parietal thrombus contained in the aneurism. It covers the inner wall either partially or completely, being in the latter case perforated for arterial offshoots. This clot may occlude the artery, and it is not unfrequently continued into the arterial branches (peripherally) or into the aorta (centrally). Amongst the various changes that the clot undergoes, organisation of its outermost layer and softening are the most frequent. The constant occurrence of this clot is due to the presence of the worms, to the inflammation, ulcerative and regressive affection of the intima, and to the dilatation of the arterial tube.

8. The palisade worms are seldom absent from aneurisms of the horse. Their not being present is merely an accidental circumstance. On the average, nine palisade worms go to a verminous aneurism, and eleven in the horse. The highest number of worms found in one horse reached 121. Not unfrequently, also, palisade worms, or their coverings in the form of larval skins, are found in the aneurismal walls. The immigration and emigration of the palisade worms out of the intestine into the aneurism, and the reverse, take place probably, as a rule, within the arterial circulation. The path of the worm does not appear to be always the same, inasmuch as they can also wander through the peritoneal cavity. The worms found in the aneurismal walls are probably mostly only strayed specimens.

9. From a comparative pathologico-anatomical point of view, the developmental history of the aneurysma verminosum proves that a circumscribed endo-arteritis can determine the formation of an aneurism.

10. Like the worm-aneurism itself, atheroma of the abdominal arteries arises from a circumscribed acute and subacute endo-arteritis. The histological changes in the secondary atheroma of horses are perfectly analogous to those of the spontaneous atheroma of man. Idiopathic atheroma, as seen in man, does not occur any more in the horse than in the other domestic animals. Atheroma in the horse is always secondary. To be sure, one observes an idiopathic chronic endo-arteritis in many abdominal arteries of the horse, which, however, never exhibits indications of atheromatous degeneration.

11. In consequence of its position the worm-aneurism of horses is not open to physical examination, and on that account cannot be diagnosed by physical signs; moreover, it offers no characteristic symptoms. Its termination by rupture is extremely rare, the aneurisms of the abdominal aorta being more disposed to rupture than those of the anterior mesenteric artery. Of eighteen cases of known perforation, fifteen opened into the peritoneal cavity, and three into the bowel. The dangerous symptoms of the worm-aneurism are exclusively due to embolism and thrombosis of the affected artery, arising from the parietal clot. The latter becomes especially dangerous through its increasing size and the softening which often accompanies it. The absorption and shrinking of this parietal clot, be it organised or not, is materially assisted by the high pressure to which it is exposed.

12. The very marked symptoms of vascular obstruction—the sero-hæmorrhagic intestinal infarct—in embolism and thrombosis of the mesenteric arteries are easily explained by paralysis of the muscular coat of the intestine, by the absence or paucity of valves in the portal vein, by the readiness with which meteorismus (or flatus) arises, especially in herbivora, and by the loose consistence of the intestinal walls or villi.

13. The occlusion of the intestinal arteries, especially that arising suddenly, always has for its result a partial or complete paralysis of the portion of bowel which they supply. The palsy of the intestine causes the forward movement of the intestinal contents to cease, a stoppage of the fæces, a hindrance to the discharge of fæces and gas, and also that exceedingly dangerous formation of gas (within the intestinal tract) which in the herbivora is so abnormal, both quantitatively and qualitatively.

14. In embolism and thrombosis of the mesenteric arteries the symptoms during life are entirely identical with those observed in the so-called colic of horses, as has been determined by numerous observations. The partial paralysis of the bowel, which is brought on by the embolism and thrombosis of the mesenteric arteries, forms in great part the chief and leading feature of the series of symptoms known as the “colic” of horses. The palsy of the bowel which arises in this way may explain also the frequent ruptures of the digestive canal and the greater number of its changes in position. The latter are specially favored by the structure of the abdominal viscera in the horse.

15. The old changes which one finds in the peripheral branches of the anterior mesenteric artery, in the form of expired and partly absorbed embolic and thrombolic processes (pigmentation, arterial and venous thrombi), particularly in connection with those arteries which are seats of the aneurism, decisively prove that the large majority of colics resulting in recovery, so far as they do not depend upon known injuries, are caused by paralysis of the bowel from embolism and thrombosis. The sudden occurrence, course, and result of these kinds of colics also testify to their embolic origin.

16. The œdematous, inflammatory, and hæmorrhagic processes that one often finds described as the cause of death in colic, almost exclusively depend on thrombosis and embolism of the mesenteric arteries, the cases forming about 40 to 50 per cent. of all fatal colics.

17. The rapid course in fatal colics, as well as the preponderating symptoms of dyspnœa in cases of recovery, is finally due to the abnormal development of gas in the alimentary canal. In addition to the diminution of the respiratory surface by the lofty position of the diaphragm, a direct gas-poisoning (carbonic acid and sulphuretted hydrogen) probably contributes to the intensity of the symptoms and the rapid course by diffusion of the abnormally developed gas out of the intestinal canal into the blood.

18. The variety of the anatomical derangements caused by embolism and thrombosis of the intestinal arteries is faithfully mirrored by the variety of the clinical symptoms and the different degrees in the intensity and course of the colic.

19. Amongst every 100 horses afflicted with internal disease, 40 are ill with colic. Among any hundred deceased horses 40 have perished from colic, and among 100 colic patients 87 recover and 13 die. The figures prove that neither amongst the epizoötic nor sporadic diseases of horses is there any other affection which occurs so frequently, or claims anything like so many victims. Like the frequency of the worm-aneurism, the amount of disease and mortality increases with advancing age. The etiology of the colic of horses finds in the thrombosis and embolism of the mesenteric arteries, with the consequent paralysis of the bowel, an all-sufficient explanation, whilst the causes of colic hitherto accepted were for the most part insufficient.

20. In a great number of cases the thrombus of the worm-aneurism is continued past the mouth of the anterior mesenteric artery, into the lumen of the aorta, and, as such, is the exclusive cause of the embolisms of the pelvic and crural arteries which bring about the intermittent hobblings (the author says “intermitterenden Hinken,” not “Hahnentritten,” the usual equivalent term for stringhalt). Considering the excessive frequency of the thrombus being continued into the aorta, it becomes highly probable that a great part of the diseases and lameness of the posterior extremities (“Hüft und Kreuzlähme, unsichtbarer Spath, &c.,” which may be rendered “sciatic and hip or spinal lameness, obscure spavin, &c.”) are due to occlusion of the arteries.

21. Owing to the fibrous thickening of the connective tissue of the root of the anterior mesenteric round the aneurism, and to the considerable size of the latter, disturbances of the innervation of the intestine, (as well as) hindrances to the passage of the chyle, and irregularities in the portal circulation may be created, which may well lie at the root of many chronic disturbances of digestion in horses.

22. Considering the great losses and heavy social disadvantages that are occasioned by the colic of horses to the horse-breeder, to agriculture, and to the general welfare, it is of the highest importance to discover means which should prevent the introduction of the embryos with the food, and, as a consequence, the migration of the palisade worms into the mesenteric arteries of the horse.

I wish it to be distinctly understood that the above summary is translated from Bollinger (Die Kolik; s. 257). Instructive cases have been recorded both at home and abroad. Prof. Varnell has remarked that “foals and yearlings suffer more from parasites in the paddocks than they do on adjoining farms where only a few animals are bred.” This is explained by the relatively greater amount of egg-dispersion proceeding from the infected brood-mares. It is quite evident that the lives of many valuable animals are annually sacrificed by the neglect of hygienic arrangements. The palisade worm is chiefly destructive to young animals, and as Mr. Percivall has well remarked, these parasites are “commonly the cause of lingering and hidden disease, terminating in death,” without any suspicion on the part of the practitioner as to the nature of the malady. Instructive cases of this form of helminthiasis are given by Messrs Littler, Wyer, Harris, Meyrick, Litt, Percivall, Tindal, Walters, Brett, Aitken, Mead, Clancy, Baird, Mercer, Wright, Seaman, Hepburn, and others.

Second only in clinical importance is the little four-spined strongyle (S. tetracanthus). The sexes, often seen united, are nearly of equal size, the largest females reaching nearly 3/4″. They infest the cæcum and colon, and have been found in all varieties of the horse, ass, and mule. The worm occurs in immense numbers and is a true blood-sucker. Its presence occasions severe colic and other violent symptoms, often proving fatal to the bearer. As already announced, in connection with my account of the tapeworms of the horse, this little worm may produce a virulent epidemic (epizoöty). In the sexually-immature state the worm occupies the walls of the large intestine, where it gives rise to congestion, ecchymosis, inflammation, and the formation of pus deposits. The species is readily recognised by its bright red color, by the four conical spines surrounding the mouth, by the two neck-bristles, and by the long three-lobed hood of the male, the posterior three-cleft ray having a rudimentary or fourth branch attached to its outer edge. In some specimens sent to me by Mr Whitney, I found this supplementary process fully twice as long as Schneider has represented it.

From the earliest times this entozoon has been confounded with the palisade worm. Rudolphi and several of his successors, and also in recent times Ercolani and Colin, regarded this worm as the progeny of Strongylus armatus. During my earlier examinations I likewise fell into the error of describing the immature worm as representing a new species. The parasites described by me as Trichonemes (T. arcuata) were identical with those which Prof. Dick had previously described as “worms at different stages of growth,” in his MS. sent to Dr Knox, 1836. Parasites of this kind were described by Dr Knox as “Animals similar to Trichina;” by Diesing as the “Nematoideum equi caballi;” by Mr. Littler as “Extremely small ascarides,” in a letter to Mr Varnell; by Mr Varnell himself as “Entozoa in various stages of growth;” and by Prof. Williams as “Entozoa from the intestinal walls,” in a letter to myself, dated March 13th, 1873. In reference, however, to Mr Varnell’s account of Mr Littler’s specimens I may observe that the appearances which he at first merely described as “blood spots,” he afterwards characterised as dark points “containing young worms in various stages of growth.”

As regards the course of development of this worm we have yet much to learn. Although the worm is a frequent cause of epizoöty in this country it appears to be but little known on the Continent. Krabbe makes no mention of the helminthiasis set up by the four-spined strongyle, but he points out that the young occupy the mucous membrane, in which situation they lie coiled so as to present to the naked eye the appearance of little dark spots (Husdyrenes Indvoldsorme, 1872, p. 17, ‘Aftryk. of Tidsskr. for Vet.’). However, Leuckart’s account of the appearances presented in a case brought under his notice is instructive. He writes:—“I have hitherto had only a single opportunity of examining the strongyle capsules in the intestinal membrane of the horse. Their presence is limited to the cæcum and colon, but they are so abundant in this situation that their numbers may be estimated by many hundreds. It was thus likewise in the case in question, the investigation of which by myself was rendered possible through the friendliness of Prof. Haubner of Dresden. The capsules were of oval form, and glimmered through the mucous membrane as opaque spots, mostly from one to three millimètres in size. In several of these capsules nothing was found beyond a greasy mass of a brownish color, which might readily be taken for a tuberculous substance; but the greater number of them contained a coiled worm, from three to six millimètres long, their breadth being 0·15 to 0·26 mm. (which is 1/166″ to 1/99″). They exhibited a highly colored stout intestine, and a thick-walled oral capsule of 0·022 mm. in depth and 0·025 mm. in breadth. On the dorsal side two three-cornered chitinous lamellæ arise from the shallow floor of the small oral capsule. The cuticle, notwithstanding its firm structure, was still destitute of annulations. The tail (0·15 to 0·18 mm. in length) was strongly marked off from the rest of the body, being of a slender cylindrical form with a rounded-off extremity. The development of the sexual apparatus had not yet commenced. Notwithstanding the great differences of size presented by the body, the structure of all examples was exactly the same to the minutest particular, without exception. Also the smallest specimens, which scarcely measured one millimètre, found in capsules of 0·3 mm. in diameter, were distinguishable only by the absence of the oral cup, whose position was represented by a slender and thickened chitinous cylinder, as obtains in the earliest parasitic juvenile condition of Dochmius trigonocephalus. The transformation to the form presenting an oral cup occurs through a moulting, which is accomplished already in examples of 1·5 mm. in diameter. Later, also, the worms cast their skins in their capsules, without, however, changing the oral cup. In regard to the final purpose of this metamorphosis, my investigations have left me entirely in the lurch; nevertheless, I do not entertain the smallest doubt that the worms which I have here described are the larval forms of Strongylus tetracanthus.”

From numerous examinations I have satisfied myself that the worms after escaping the walls of the intestine—and they may often be observed in the very act of passing—re-enter the lumen of the bowel to undergo another change of skin prior to acquiring the adult state. This they accomplish by rolling themselves within the fæcal matter of the horse’s intestine. The best examples I have seen of this phenomenon occurred in a case for the clinical particulars of which I am indebted to Mr Cawthron. Most interesting was it to notice these immature worms, each coiled within a sort of cocoon, which Mr Cawthron termed a cyst. All the forty little cocoons more or less resembled pills, the bright red color of their contained worms strongly contrasting with the dark color of the cocoons. They consisted of compressed débris, which under the microscope showed many common forms of vegetable hairs and parenchyma, besides raphides and chlorophyll-granules. Internally, there was a cavity corresponding with the shape of the worm. In one instance I noticed that the worm had nearly completed its ecdysis, a portion of the old skin still remaining attached to the tail.

As already remarked, the evidence respecting the frequency and destructiveness of this little worm in England is now quite overwhelming. In a series of papers contributed to the ‘Veterinarian’ (too long for full quotation here), I have endeavoured to do justice to the “finds” and observations of those members of the veterinary profession who were good enough to supply me with valuable notes and communications. In particular must my indebtedness to Mr Rees Lloyd be acknowledged, for, as previously observed, he it was who first recognised the parasitic character of the Welsh epizoötic outbreaks. In the Deangunid and Talybont districts these strongyles proved terribly fatal to mountain ponies. It appears that the owners of the animals, as soon as they perceived anything amiss, at once disposed of them by sale, evidently anticipating fatal results sooner or later. The facts connected with some of the isolated cases brought under Mr Lloyd’s care are especially interesting, as showing the virulence of the symptoms set up. Thus on the 9th of Feb., 1875, some time after I had identified the species from specimens he had sent me, Mr Lloyd writes as follows:—“The last case I had was one which had been sold in this way, and which had suffered now and then from colicky pains for the space of about two months. The animal had been drenched with febrifuges and rubbed with stimulating liniments about the throat. However, I was sent for one evening, about an hour before the patient’s death. I soon diagnosed the case as parasitic, and at the same time considered it to be a hopeless one. I remained with it the whole of the time, of which about forty-five minutes of the most acute pain was borne by the trembling beast, which was leaping, rolling, and tossing itself about with astonishing rapidity. The bulging eyes, gnashing teeth, foaming mouth, and sharp peculiar hoarseness, were pitiable to behold; when suddenly all was silent, he quietly rose to his feet, and nipped the grass as if nought had troubled him. I then trotted him quietly up a few yards of rising ground in the corner of the field, when he immediately got down to rise no more. The next day I examined him, and found myriads of the four-spined strongyles, a large number being encysted.” Mr Rees Lloyd’s account of this case is so graphic that I have reproduced it without abridgment. Speaking of another patient, a mare, he says, “she had voided thousands of these parasites, and was in a frightfully emaciated condition, but beyond a craving appetite there was little else to be noticed.” Notwithstanding the few diagnostic indications afforded, Mr Lloyd, being led by the history of the case to suspect worms, at once examined the fæces, when he discovered thousands of these minute nematodes. Clinically, these facts ought not to be lost sight of. In addition to Mr Lloyd’s cases I have received valuable particulars of others at the hands of Prof. Williams, Messrs Cawthron, A. Clarke, T. Gerrard, D. M. Storrar, and J. W. Whitney.

Practically, it is important to inform the persons most interested that an active “drench” may be serviceable in dislodging the free intestinal worms, but the administration of purgatives must not be persevered in. As in the somewhat parallel case of Trichinosis in the human subject, the fatality of the disorder depends not upon the free and mature worms, but upon the migrating and sexually-immature forms. All attempts by means of active drugs to poison the entozoa, when once they have gained access to the tissues (whether actually capsuled or not), are worse than useless. By all means let the animals have a dose of aloes in the first instance, followed by warm bran mashes; but thereafter let every care be taken to support the patient’s strength. Especially should the exhibition of turpentine be avoided. Without doubt the cause of this, as of other similar epidemics, is primarily referable to atmospheric conditions which favor the multiplication of parasites. As the practical man cannot alter these climatal changes, he must do his best to check the disorder by removing the victims to new localities; or, if the animals must remain in infected districts, by supplying them with various kinds of artificially prepared fodder, supplemented by carefully filtered water. In this way, I believe, epidemics may be arrested, but they cannot be stamped out altogether, except by the adoption of measures which would be alike impracticable and unwarrantable.

Passing to the consideration of other intestinal nematodes, the next in importance is the large lumbricoid (Ascaris megalocephala) found in all solipeds, including the zebra. Whilst the male worms rarely exceed seven inches in length, the females sometimes reach seventeen inches. Science is indebted to Schneider for setting at rest all doubt as to the specific distinctness of this worm. The far larger number of caudal papillæ at once distinguishes it from the lumbricoid of man and the hog. The equine Ascaris may occur in any part of the alimentary canal, but the small gut forms its proper head-quarters. The entire course of development of this worm has not been traced; nevertheless, Heller found human lumbricoids measuring less than the eighth of an inch. It is not likely that any intermediate host is necessary for the growth of the larvæ, prior to their access to the definitive host. I have reared the larvæ in impure water and in moist horse-dung, up to the size of 1/30 of an inch. They were then furnished with a completely-formed digestive apparatus. Davaine kept the intra-chorional embryos alive in water for five or six years. His experiments on rats, dogs, and on a cow, led to no decisive results; but it is important to know that the eggs of lumbricoids effectually resist dryness. According to Davaine, however, embryonal development is thus arrested (except in Ascaris tetraptera of the mouse).

Seeing how readily the most ordinary attention to cleanliness must suffice to prevent lumbricoid helminthism, it is scandalous that so many severe cases of disease from this source should ever and anon turn up and be reported. In no properly conducted stable are these large entozoa ever to be seen in any considerable numbers; for so long as the water-supply is good and the fodder clean there is no possibility of infection. A fertile source of infection, however, results from allowing horses to drink at foul road-side ponds and from open waters in the vicinity of stables and paddocks where foals are reared. Into the clinical bearings of the subject I do not enter, but a host of interesting records of lumbricoid disease may be found in veterinary journals, both home and foreign. These have their counterpart in the very similar cases recorded in the medical journals, and quoted by me in the 34th bibliography of this work. From Sonsino’s report these worms do not appear very common in Egypt, but the veterinary inspector, Dr Zunhinett, had occasionally met with them. From Messrs W. Awde, J. B. Wolstenholme, and other English veterinary surgeons, I have received notes of interesting cases, but in this connection I can only further refer to the published cases of Messrs Anderson, Boddington, Cartwright, Harrison, Moir, and Wallis. The French cases, by M. Cambron and by M. Véret, are particularly instructive. Many of the cases give fatal results. In one fatal instance a pupil of mine counted over 1200 of these worms, and in a similar fatal case Mr Lewis reports that he found the small intestine literally crammed, some thousands of worms being huddled together in large masses.