The apprenticeship system was used in Japan. The boy had to serve a long apprenticeship with no pay, or but little pay, although his needs of food, clothing, and lodging were attended to. Somewhat akin to this was the entering of boys into the homes of those of distinction and education. The young men performed the services required about the home and they were cared for by the ones having them in charge and given instruction in the things needed by them for the future.
The art of writing was brought into Japan from Korea in A. D. 284. Previous to this it would appear that the Japanese had no way of recording events, as books and writing were unknown. Writing was at first with the Chinese characters, which were used to represent Japanese words. Later a system was devised whereby only parts of the Chinese characters were used for writing and a syllabry was formed.
In the university mentioned above, "the training of the students in medicine chiefly consisted in making them familiar with the methods which prevailed in China. The properties of medicinal plants, the variations of the pulse in health and disease and in the changing seasons, and the anatomy of the human body were the chief subjects of study. The human cadaver was never dissected, but a knowledge of anatomy was obtained from diagrams which were wholly hypothetical. In early times medical officers were appointed to experiment with medicines upon monkeys, and also to dissect the bodies of monkeys. From these dissections, as well as from the printed diagrams of Chinese books the imperfect knowledge which they had reached was derived. It was not till 1771 that Sugita Genpaku and several other Japanese scholars had an opportunity to dissect the body of a criminal, and by personal observation found the utter falsity of the Chinese diagrams on which they had hitherto relied, and the correctness of the Dutch books, which they had, contrary to the laws of the country, learned to read."132
A large part of the education of the young samurai was of a military order. He was well trained to ride a horse, to shoot a bow, and to handle the spear and the sword. The hara-kiri was an especial part of this training. "They are instructed as to the proper mode of performing this act, the ceremonies that should accompany it, varying with the occasion, and according as it is done publicly or privately, and under what circumstances a well-bred man should feel himself obliged thus to destroy himself."133
The girls were taught needlework, music, the arranging of flowers, etc. They were instructed in household duties and the things needed by a wife and mother. Some girls received higher education, becoming able to understand the Chinese characters used by the Japanese, and they were especially well learned in the history of their country. "Plutarch tells us that the ambition of a Spartan woman was to be the wife of a great man and the mother of illustrious sons. Bushido set no lower ideal before our maidens; their whole bringing up was in accordance with this view. They were instructed in many martial practices for the sake of self-defense, that they might safeguard their person and their children; in the art of committing suicide, that in case no alternative opened to save them from disgrace, they might end their lives in due order and in comely fashion."134 There were a number of books, which appeared from time to time, upon the education of the girl, till a library arose which were often bound in one volume.
"If the reader will imagine a volume composed of the Bible, 'Ladies' Letter-writer,' 'Guide to Etiquette,' 'The Young Ladies' Own Book,' Hannah More's works, Miss Strickland's 'Queens of England,' a work on household economy, and an almanac, he will obtain some idea of the contents of the Bunko, or 'Japanese Lady's Library.' With text and illustrations, the volume is very large; but if translated and printed in brevier with the cuts, it would not probably occupy more space than one of our largest monthly magazines. The books composing it, in their order of importance, are the Ōnna Dai Gakŭ ('Women's Great Learning'—the moral duties of woman, founded on the Chinese classics); Ōnna Shō Gakŭ ('Woman's Small Learning'—introduction to the above); Ōnna Niwa no Oshiyé ('Woman's Household Instruction'—duties relating to furniture, dress, reception of guests, and all the minutiae of indoor life, both daily and ceremonial); Ōnna Imagawa ('Moral Lessons' in paragraphs); Ōnna Yō bunshō ('Lady's Letter-writer'); Nijiu-shi Ko ('Twenty-four Children'—stories about model children in China). Besides these works of importance, there are Hiyaku Nin Isshiu—a collection of one hundred poems from as many poets, written in the old Yamato dialect, and learned in every household, and perpetually repeated with passionate fondness by old and young; a collection of lives of model women; household lore; almanac learning; rules and examples to secure perfect agreement between man and wife; and a vast and detailed array of other knowledge of various sorts, both useful and ornamental to a Japanese maiden, wife, widow, or mother. This book is studied, not only by the higher classes, but by the daughters in almost every respectable family throughout the country. It is read and reread, and committed to memory, until it becomes to the Japanese woman what the Bible is to the inmate of those homes in the West in which the Bible is the first, and last, and often the only book."135
A day having been set for the wedding, on that day the women would gather at the home of the bride and the men at the bridegroom's house. As soon as it was dark, the bride was escorted to the home of the bridegroom, amidst the beating of drums, the playing of tambourines, and the flashing of lanterns. Arrived at his house, a man would grasp the bride about the waist to carry her within, which would cause a strife for if this was done by a friend of the bridegroom then he would in the future be able to maintain due authority over his wife, but if it was by a friend of the bride then she "would keep her own side of the house." When the bride had passed into the reception-room, the bridegroom made his appearance and he would hold a looking-glass before her that he might get a good look at her face, and he was aided in his decision of her looks by the ladies present who would strive to get a look also at her face. "After this, the bridegroom takes a bit of sugar-candy, and, biting it in two halves, eats one himself, and presents the other to his bride. He then takes her stockings, throws one over his left shoulder, places the other under his right foot, and orders all the spectators to withdraw. They retire accordingly, and the happy couple are left alone."137
There was a form of marriage peculiar to Persia, and which must have originated in a very early time, in which the contract was only temporary. In this form a woman would enter into an agreement to live as a wife with a certain man for a limited period on consideration of receiving a specified sum. The time might be for a part of a day or for a long number of years. If the man should leave the woman before the time had expired, she received the sum of money just the same. But she had no other claim upon him nor had she the right to inherit property from him. At the end of the time the woman could not marry again for a month and if then found to be with child a longer time had to elapse before her marriage again and the child, as well as other children born to the union, was acknowledged and supported by the man with whom she had been living.
It is quite well known that incest existed among the ancient Persians. They even went further in this than did the Egyptians or Peruvians, as not only were brothers and sisters permitted to marry but even a mother and son or father and daughter. As with the ancient Peruvians so with the ancient Persians, these unions were sometimes required for their religion called for the offspring of such unions for the sacrifices.
Since the number of sons a Persian had was a source of pride to him, this made polygamy a desired and necessary thing. Hence in ancient Persia a man was allowed to have several wives and besides an additional number of concubines, in order that many sons might be born to him.
Divorce was permitted almost at will to the husband, custom holding him in check. Another thing that checked divorce was that the husband had to restore the dowry with the returning of the woman to her home. The most usual causes of separation were bad temper, extravagance, or some complaint of that kind against the wife.
There were five periods in the life of the Persian. The first ended at the fifth year, or, as some claim, at the seventh year; the second period ended with the fifteenth year; the third ended at twenty-five; the fourth ended at fifty, and the fifth period was the time after fifty years of age.
During the first period the child was under the care of the mother and the other women of the family. "'Up to the fifth year,' Herodotus tells us, 'they are not allowed to come into the sight of their father, but pass their lives with the women. This is done that if the child die young, the father would not be afflicted with the loss.'"140 The child was not supposed to be capable of distinguishing between right and wrong, and so he was taught simply to obey the directions given him. A child was not to be whipped before his seventh year, and he was to receive only kind treatment.
At the close of this first period, at the end of the fifth year, the boy left his mother and went into the care of the state. This second period was a time of physical training. The boy was given exercises in running, stone slinging, bow shooting, and javelin throwing. He was taught to ride, and, later, to hunt. He was trained to endure heat and cold and hunger and fatigue. Through the national traditions, the boys learned of the doings of the heroes and the meaning of noble deeds. They were taught to speak the truth and learned to be just and pure and courageous and to gain self-control. They were instructed in the myths of the gods and other religious matters, and about the fifteenth year the boys were invested with the holy girdle.
At fifteen the boy entered the youth period. During this period military training was the great exercise. The youth received careful training in the use of military implements, in the knowledge of military terms and usages, and given the strict discipline of military life. "The Magi required a higher education. This must have consisted in the study and explanation of the sacred writings, and may have included a limited training in philosophy, astrology, medicine, law, and finance, so that they were able to become advisers to the Great King and his satraps."141
At twenty-five the youth was considered a man and he took his place as a citizen of the state and he continued in service till his fiftieth year.
Girls received no education other than that of domestic training, such as was needed in the care of the home, the rearing of the little children, and the other duties that would come to the women. Women held a higher place in the family than was granted to them, for the most part, in other oriental countries.
There was no educational system in Persia. There was no real method of instruction. Perhaps no other nation gave more care to the moral and physical training of the young than did ancient Persia, yet this was to the almost entire neglect of intellectual training. The moral training came through the mingling of the young with their elders and the military training through imitation of the men at the various courts. "We know, however, from Strabo and the general evidence of antiquity that the boys of the higher classes were brought up together under men of gravity and reputation at the court of the great king, and also at the lesser courts of the great nobles and provincial governors."142
Persian life and education tended toward individuality. Caste with its repressive influence did not exist in ancient Persia. The national feeling was intense. The government was despotic. The ethical aim was high and the individual was encouraged to high standards of courage, truthfulness, and purity. But in spite of this,(the education was faulty in that the individual was trained so strongly in warfare as to overshadow the ethical side.) As long as Persia was struggling the ethical standards were maintained alongside the standards of war so that the individual and the nation could keep right. But when conquests came, bringing wealth and power and the lower ethical standards of other nations, the Persians were unable to bear the strain and so degeneration went forward fast and the nation found itself unable to withstand the more vigorous peoples that came against it under Alexander and so the empire fell, leaving but little impress on civilization.
About eighteen was the age at which men generally married, girls younger. A man under thirteen years and a day was forbidden to marry, and a woman under twelve years and a day. Wednesday was fixed as the day for maidens to marry, and Thursday for widows. If the bride was a maid each party was allowed twelve months after betrothal in which to prepare for marriage, in case of a widow but thirty days were allowed. A widower had to wait over three festivals and a widow three months before re-marrying. A marriage could not take place within thirty days of the death of a near relative, nor on the Sabbath, nor on a feast-day. Marriage was not permitted with those not in their right senses, nor in a state of drunkenness. "The Mosaic law (Lev. XVIII., 7-17; XX., 11, etc.) proscribes no less than fifteen marriages within specified degrees of both consanguinity and affinity. In neither consanguinity and affinity, however, does the law extend beyond two degrees, viz., the mother, her daughter, aunt, father's wife, sister on the father's side, wife of the father's brother, brother's wife (excepting in case of the Levirate marriage), daughter-in-law, granddaughter either from a son or daughter, and two sisters together."144
It was generally held that all marriages were arranged in heaven and that it was proclaimed there, forty days before the child's birth, just whom he or she should marry. Upon earth, the parent assumed this part and chose for his child the one he was to have in life as a partner. This duty belonged to the father, and if no father, then the mother. The son might make a personal choice of his bride, so that the son's wishes might be consulted, but all proposals, nevertheless, were made by the father. Girls up to twelve years and a day, minors, could be betrothed by the father and this was true of all women in the earlier times, but later, if of age, the woman had to give her own free and expressed consent, without which a union was invalid. The proposals were offered usually by the parents of the young man, but if there was a difference of rank then they were made by the father of the girl.
The betrothal was considered as sacred as marriage and could not be more easily broken. "For a betrothal to be legal, it has to be effected in one of the following three modes: 1. By money, or money's worth, which, according to the school of Shammai, must be a denar—90 grains of pure gold—or, according to the school of Hillel, a perutah—half grain of pure silver—and which is to be given to the maiden, or, if she is a minor, to her father, as betrothal price. 2. By letter or contract, which the young man either in person or through a proxy, has given to the maiden, or to her father when she is a minor. 3. By cohabitation, when the young man and maiden, having pronounced the betrothal formula in the presence of two witnesses, retire into a separate room. This, however, is considered immodest, and the young man is scourged."145
A father was to provide a dowry for his daughter conformable to her station in life, and should the father not be able to do this the bridegroom would, before marriage, give her sufficient for the necessary outfit. In case of an orphan the dowry was provided from public funds. In earlier times, after the giving over of the marriage price and other gifts, the bridegroom took the bride with him. At a later period a marriage-feast was given at the bride's home, and at a later period yet the wedding-feast was furnished at the home of the bridegroom.
Children were very greatly desired by the ancient Hebrews, and especially male children, as the more children a man had the more was he respected. Also the expectance of the Messiah, who might come from any one of the families, made children all the more wished for. Hence marriage was a duty with them, and this desire for children was also a cause for polygamy as thereby more children would be born to a family. Yet polygamy and concubinage was not the rule with the Hebrews but the rare exception, so far as the people generally were concerned, so that they really adopted monogamy and were, probably, the only Semites who did so. Even where polygamy or concubinage did occur the law insisted that each wife or concubine should receive her full conjugal rights, which prevented any extended practice even among the most wealthy.
Divorce was allowed for "any shameful thing," which, necessarily, was interpreted in different ways. "In fact, we know that it included every kind of impropriety, such as going about with loose hair, spinning in the street, familiarly talking with men, ill-treating her husband's parents in his presence, brawling, that is, 'speaking to her husband so loudly that the neighbors could hear her in the adjoining house,' a general bad reputation, or the discovery of fraud before marriage. On the other hand, the wife could insist on being divorced if her husband were a leper, or effected with polypus, or engaged in a disagreeable or dirty trade, such as that of a tanner or coppersmith. One of the cases in which divorce was obligatory was, if either party had become heretical, or ceased to profess Judaism."146 Yet divorces were not so common as might be thought under so loose a statement for procuring them. Rather strict laws were drawn up explicitly stating for what divorce could be allowed, both to man and to woman. Divorce was discouraged and a conciliation was always tried to be brought about before divorce proceedings began. The divorced parties could marry other parties and even could unite again. The bill of divorcement had to be couched in explicit terms, handed to the woman herself, and in the presence of two witnesses. In separation of the parents where there were children, the daughters were placed in charge of the mother and the sons were given to the father; but should the judge consider it of advantage to the children, the sons also were given to the mother.
In order that children might be of the best, prostitution was not allowed and marriage with a prostitute forbidden. "Marriage with a prostitute was contrary to law, and the sons of such a woman were denied the political and religious privileges of citizenship unto the tenth generation."147
In the earliest times the mothers nursed their own children, prolonging this till the child was two and a half and even three years old. In later times the wealthier classes employed nurses for this duty. It was the custom for the boys to be under the care of the women till the fifth year after which the father took charge of them.
Perhaps the most important ceremony in the earlier years of the child was that of circumcision. The child received its name at this time. Only males were subjected to this. It was performed on the eighth day of the child's life, even though it was the Sabbath. If two of the child's brothers had died from the results of the operation, or if he was weakly, this was deferred till such a time as there would be no great danger. This ceremony was of great importance and so the prescribed rules were strictly adhered to, otherwise it was not valid. Usually the father performed the operation, yet it might be done by any Israelite, and even in special cases by women.
The father had full control of his children. He had the power to inflict the severest of punishment, even death. He had greater power over the daughter than over the son, as he could annul a daughter's vow but not a son's. "When a child has attained the age of thirteen years and one day, he is declared of age by his father in the presence of ten Jews, and then he possesses the legal capacity of acting for himself, and can make and perform his own contracts. After that the sins he commits are on his own account. Previously they were on the account of his father. With respect to girls, they are accounted women when they arrive at the age of twelve years and one-half."148
The hair was considered a chief point of beauty and so it was well cared for. With the women it was worn long and curled and plaited and adorned with gold ornaments and pearls. Auburn hair being a favorite color, sometimes the hair was dyed and again it was sprinkled with gold-dust. To keep the hair in place, there were hair-pins and combs. Perfumery was greatly in use as were cosmetics, the ladies painting their cheeks and blackening their eyebrows. "As for ornaments, gentlemen generally wore a seal, either on the ring-finger or suspended round the neck. Some of them had also bracelets above the wrist (commonly of the right arm), made of ivory, gold, or precious stones strung together. Of course, the fashionable lady was similarly adorned, adding to the bracelets finger-rings, ankle-rings, nose-rings, ear-rings, gorgeous head-dresses, necklaces, chains, and what are nowadays called 'charms.' As it may interest some, we shall add a few sentences of description. The ear-ring was either plain, or had a drop, a pendant, or a little bell inserted. The nose-ring, which the traditional law ordered to be put aside on the Sabbath, hung gracefully over the upper lip, yet so as not to interfere with the salute of the privileged friend. Two kinds of necklaces were worn—one close-fitting, the other often consisting of precious stones or pearls, and hanging down over the chest, often as low as the girdle. The fashionable lady would wear two or three such chains, to which smelling-bottles and various ornaments, even heathen 'charms,' were attached. Gold pendants descended from the head-ornament, which sometimes rose like a tower, or was wreathed in graceful snake-like coils. The anklets were generally so wrought as in walking to make a sound like little bells. Sometimes the two ankle-rings were fastened together, which would oblige the fair wearer to walk with small, mincing steps. If to all this we add gold and diamond pins, and say that our very brief description is strictly based upon contemporary notices, the reader will have some idea of the appearance of fashionable society."150
Black as night, it is not night;
It cuts its wings, it is no bird;
Damaged the house, it is no mouse;
It ate the barley and is no donkey.
Answer—The ant."151
The following is quoted from Jerome: "It is customary in the cities of Palestine, and has been so from ancient times, to place up and down large stones to serve for exercises for the young, who, according in each case to their degrees of strength, lift these stones, some as high as their knees, others to their middle, others above their heads, the hands being kept horizontal and joined under the stone."152
In a general way education among the Hebrews may be divided into two epochs—pre-exilic, from the foundation of the kingdom down to the return from the Babylonian captivity, and post-exilic, from the close of the first period to the fall of Jerusalem and the final dispersion of the Jews.
During the first period there was no public means of education. Instruction was given by the parents, the very young child of both sexes being under the mother's care, but when older the boys went with the father out into his work and so learned from him. The young people were taught the history of their own people, their relation to God, the meaning of the religious feasts, the needed ethical and social training, and the things necessary for making a living and the care of the home. "Higher education was scarcely known until after the exile. Even the priesthood and scribes were limited to a certain knowledge of law, and of historical and judicial literature. In the schools of the prophets, besides theological interpretation and the law, they apparently learned only the arts of sacred music and poetry, whereby they were to be stimulated to greater ecstasy, and were instructed in the compilation of maxims, narratives, and annals. It has been claimed that they were taught some mathematics and astronomy, to mark off the religious festivals, but this is very doubtful."154
During the Captivity, the Hebrews came in contact with the education of Babylon, so that upon their return to their own country education became more general and this continued to grow till contact with the Greeks and Romans brought about more general education and the establishment of schools for the training of the priests and the youth of the upper classes, and later public elementary schools began to grow up and became the most prominent feature of Jewish education. Rich and poor alike attended these schools. Reading and writing and a little arithmetic were taught the younger pupils, the older pupils were given instruction in the law. All pupils were obliged to learn a trade.
In the teaching the children were required to use the memory a great deal so that frequent repetition was the practice and, as in other oriental countries, the pupil was to do this work aloud and should he try to do it quietly he was reproved. In teaching the child to read, he was first given the alphabet, the letters being placed on a board for him so that he could see them. The child had to read aloud to his teacher, who corrected his pronunciation. The Hebrew Bible was begun to be read by the child at an early age. In learning to write, a copy was made in a wax tablet which the child traced with a stylus, and after a while he followed a copy on papyrus or parchment with a pen. In the more advanced work, interpretation of the law, etc., would be given by the instructor, the youth, would listen attentively and then strive to reproduce in exact words what had been given.
In the early period, at least, discipline must have severe. If we are allowed to form an opinion based on the old Testament, then we must conclude that the rod took a prominent part in every child's education, and from the authorities given us it is pretty certain that the ancient Jewish parent did not spare the rod whether he spoiled the child or not.
In the early epoch, girls received but little training, only such as was necessary to the carrying on of the domestic duties. At no time did girls receive such training as the boys, but in the second epoch they were taught to read and to write with dancing and music and domestic arts. Yet it would seem that there were some women who showed training beyond the simple subjects and who were able to take a place alongside the educated men of their times.
Jewish education was unsystematic, narrow, and selfish, art and science was scarcely known, and the literature was limited to the ideas connected with their God. Yet there was produced a beautiful family life, a thoughtful and kind treatment of children, a higher position for women than with any other oriental nation, a great reverence for parents, and a true idea of their relation to the Supreme Being.