1493 Most Spanish Jews leave Portugal; all remaining behind are sold as slaves.
  Simon Duran II (1439–1570), rabbi of Algiers.
1494. Isaac Abrabanel, minister of finance to two kings of Naples.
1496. Manoel of Portugal orders the Jews to accept baptism or leave the country.
1497. Manoel seizes Jewish children and has them baptized; many Jews accept baptism; all others banished from Portugal.
1498. The exiles settled in Navarre banished.
1499. The Jews of Nuremberg banished.
1502. Judah Leon Abrabanel (Medigo, 1470–1530) writes his “Dialogues of Love.”
  Asher Lämmlein proclaims himself the forerunner of the Messiah.
1503 (about). Abraham Farissol (1451–1525), scholar at the court of Ferrara.
  Gershon Cohen Soncinus establishes a Hebrew printing office in Prague.
  Jacob Polak (1460–1530), the alleged originator of the Pilpul method of Talmud study.
1504. Abraham Zacuto finishes his chronicle, “Sefer Yochasin.”
1506. Massacre of Marranos in Lisbon.
1507. Beginning of the feud between John Reuchlin and the Humanists on the one side and, on the other, Pfefferkorn, the tool of the Dominicans led by Hoogstraten, Victor von Karben, Arnold von Tongern, Ortuinus Gratius, and the theological faculties of various universities. The Talmud and the Jews attacked and defended before Maximilian I, Popes Alexander VI and Leo X. The last publication by Pfefferkorn in 1521, near the beginning of Luther’s Reformation.
1507 (about). Obadiah Sforno, Jacob Mantin, Abraham de Balmes, and Elias Levita (1468–1549), Hebrew grammarians, teachers of Hebrew to Christians. Introduction of Hebrew studies into German and French universities through the efforts of Egidio de Viterbo, Reuchlin, and Augustin Justiniani.
1514 (about). Obadyah di Bertinoro (1470–1520), Talmudist and preacher, improves Jerusalem.
1516. Venice sets apart a special quarter for a Ghetto.
1517 (about). David Ibn-Abi Zimra (1470–1573) abolishes the Seleucidæan era for the Egyptian Jews.
1518 (about). Samuel Abrabanel (1473–1550) employed as financier by the viceroy of Naples; Benvenida Abrabanela.
1519 (about). Joseph ben Gershon Loans (Joslin of Rosheim, 1478–1554), representative and protector of the German Jews.
1520 (about). Elias Mizrachi (1455–1527), chief rabbi of Turkey.
1523 (about). Elias Kapsali (1490–1555), historian.
1524. The Jews of Cairo threatened with destruction by Achmed Shaitan, viceroy of Egypt.
  João III of Portugal employs Henrique Nunes (Firme-Fé) as a spy upon the Marranos.
  David Reubeni in Rome under the protection of Pope Clement VII.
1529. Solomon Molcho (Diogo Pires, 1501–1532) begins his Messianic agitation.
1530 (about). Portuguese Marranos burnt by order of the Bishop of Ceuta.
1531. Clement VII issues a bull establishing the Portuguese Inquisition for Marranos.
1532. Marranos forbidden to leave Portugal.
  Molcho burnt by Emperor Charles V at Mantua.
  Clement VII stops the proceedings of the Portuguese Inquisition at the instance of Marranos.
1535. Eighteen hundred Marranos liberated from the Portuguese Inquisition in obedience to a bull of Paul III.
1535 (about). Moses Hamon (1490–1565), physician to Sultan Selim I.
1536. Paul III sanctions the Portuguese Inquisition.
1538. The ordination of rabbis (Semicha) re-introduced by Jacob Berab.
1541. Most of the Jews leave Naples, where they are threatened with social degradation.
1542. The Jews of Prague banished.
  Luther attacks the Jews.
1548. Portuguese Marranos again liberated on the interference of Paul III.
1550. The Jews banished from Genoa.
1552. Samuel Usque finishes his “Consolations for the Sorrows of Israel.”
1553. The Talmud confiscated under Julius III in Italy.
1554. Joseph Karo (1488–1575), Kabbalist and Talmudist, finishes his code, the Shulchan Aruch.
1555. Paul IV issues a severe bull against the Jews.
  The Marranos of Ancona imprisoned and tried by the Inquisition.
1555. Amatus Lusitanus (1511–1568), physician.
1556. Sultan Solyman demands from Paul IV the release of Turkish Marranos; Donna Gracia Mendesia (1510–1568).
1559. The Talmud burnt at Cremona; prayer books burnt in Vienna.
1560 (about). Joseph ben Joshua Cohen (1496–1575), historian, writes his “Annals.”
  Joseph Ibn-Verga completes the martyrology “Shebet Jehuda,” begun by his grandfather and father.
1561. The Jews of Prague banished.
1564. Pius IV permits the publication of the Talmud without its name, and after having been submitted to censorship.
1566. Pius V enforces all the canonical restrictions against the Jews.
  Joseph Nassi (d. 1579) made Duke of Naxos by Sultan Selim II.
1568. Isaac Lurya Levi (1534–1572), Kabbalist, pretends to be the Messiah of Joseph.
  Chayim Vital Calabrese (1543–1620), Kabbalist, associate of Lurya.
1569. All the Jews in the Papal States except those of Rome and Ancona expelled.
1570. Azarya ben Moses deï Rossi (1514–1578), scholar.
1570 (about). Solomon Lurya (1510–1573) and Moses ben Israel Isserles (1520–1572), author of the “Mappa,” the continuation of the Shulchan Aruch, Polish Talmudists.
1574. Solomon ben Nathan Ashkenazi negotiates peace between Venice and Turkey.
1576. Stephen Bathori allows the Jews of Poland to carry on trade without restrictions.
1579. Gracia Nassi establishes a Hebrew printing press in Turkey. Esther Kiera, Turkish court-Jewess, publishes Hebrew books.
1581. Gregory XIII forbids the employment of Jewish physicians, re-ordains the confiscation of Hebrew books, and re-introduces the compulsory Christian sermon for Jews.
1586. Sixtus V permits Jews in the Papal States and the printing of the Talmud.
  David de Pomis (1525–1588), physician.
1586 (about). The Jews of Poland establish the Synod of the Four Countries; Mordecai Jafa probably its first president.
1587. Gedalya Ibn-Yachya (1515–1587), historian, has his work printed.
1592. David Gans (1541–1613) publishes his history.
1593. Isaac ben Abraham Troki (1533–1594), Karaite, publishes his “Chisuk Emunah.”
  Clement VIII expels the Jews from all the Papal States except Rome and Ancona.
  The first Marrano settlement made in Holland at Amsterdam under Jacob Tirado.
1597. The Jews expelled from various Italian principalities; Ferrara ceases to harbor Marranos.
1604. Clement VIII issues a bull of absolution for imprisoned Portuguese Marranos.
1612. Portuguese Jews granted right of residence in Hamburg.
1614. Vincent Fettmilch’s attack upon the Jews of Frankfort.
1615. The Jews of Worms banished.
1616. Jews re-admitted into Frankfort and Worms.
1617. Lipmann Heller (1579–1654) completes his “Tossafoth Yomtob.”
1619. Permission accorded the Jews of Amsterdam to profess their religion.
1621 (about). Sara Copia Sullam (1600–1641), poetess.
1623. Excommunication of Uriel da Costa (1590–1640).
1630. Suffering of the Jews during the Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648).
1639 (about). A Talmud Torah opened in Amsterdam. Saul Levi Morteira, Isaac Aboab de Fonseca, and Manasseh ben Israel, rabbis of Amsterdam.
1641 (about). Leo ben Isaac Modena (1571–1649); Joseph Solomon Delmedigo (1591–1655); and Simone Luzzatto (1590–1663), scholars not wholly in accord with the Judaism of their time.
1646. The Jews in Brazil side with the Dutch in their war with the Portuguese.
1648. Beginning of the Cossack persecutions of the Jews in Poland under Chmielnicki.

XX. FROM THE PERSECUTION IN POLAND TO THE PRESENT TIME.
(1648–1873 C. E.)

1649 (about). Christian scholars in Holland devote themselves to Hebrew literature.
1655. Manasseh ben Israel goes to London to obtain from Cromwell the re-admission of the Jews into England.
1657. Cromwell permits Sephardic Jews settled in London to open a burial ground.
1665. Sabbataï Zevi (1626–1676) publicly accepted as the Messiah; his followers and opponents.
1670. Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677) publishes his “Theologico-Political Treatise”; contemporary Marrano poets and authors in Amsterdam.
  The Jews banished from Vienna by Emperor Leopold I.
  The Jews permitted to settle in the Mark Brandenburg by Elector John George.
1678 (about). Richard Simon, Father of the Oratory, makes Rabbinical literature known to Christians.
1679. Mordecai of Eisenstadt renews the Sabbatian craze.
1686 (about). Jacob Querido represents himself as the successor of Sabbataï Zevi.
1690 (about). Swedish scholars study the history of the Karaites.
1695 (about). Berachya represents himself as the successor of Sabbataï Zevi; his sect, the Donmäh.
1698. William Surenhuysius translates the Mishna into Latin.
1700. John Andrew Eisenmenger attempts the publication of his “Judaism Unmasked.”
1707. Jacob Basnage publishes his “History of the Jewish Religion.”
1713. Nehemiah Chiya Chayon (1650–1726), Sabbatian, causes a quarrel in the Amsterdam community; Solomon Ayllon and Chacham Zevi (Zevi ben Jacob Ashkenazi, 1656–1678).
1743. Moses Chayim Luzzatto (1707–1747), poet and Kabbalist, publishes his drama La-Yesharim Tehilla.
1745. The Jews of Prague placed under severe restrictions by Maria Theresa.
1750 (about). Chassidism founded by Israel Baalshem (1698–1759) and Beer of Mizricz (1700–1772); Elijah Wilna Gaon (1720–1797), its antagonist.
1751. Contest between Jonathan Eibeschütz (1690–1764) and Jacob Emden Ashkenazi (1698–1776).
1755. Moses Mendelssohn (1728–1786) publishes his first work.
1759 (about). Jacob Frank, Sabbatian leader, founder of the Frankist sect.
1762. Isaac Pinto publishes his “Reflections” in answer to Voltaire’s defamation of Judaism.
1778. Mendelssohn publishes the first part of his Pentateuch translation.
1779. Lessing publishes his “Nathan the Wise.”
1781. Christian William Dohm (1751–1820) publishes his work “Upon the Civil Amelioration of the Condition of the Jews.”
  Joseph II of Austria abolishes the Jewish poll-tax, and grants civil liberties to the Jews.
1783. Mendelssohn publishes “Jerusalem, or upon Ecclesiastical Power and Judaism.”
1783. Ha-Meassef founded by Mendelssohn’s followers (Measfim).
1787. Mirabeau publishes his work “Upon Mendelssohn and the Political Reform of the Jews.”
1788. The poll-tax removed from the Jews of Prussia.
1789. Abbé Grégoire publishes his “Proposals in Favor of the Jews.”
1790. The French National Assembly grants citizenship to the Sephardic Jews.
1791. The French National Assembly grants full civil rights to the Jews.
1796. The Batavian National Assembly decrees citizenship for the Jews.
1803. Israel Jacobson and Wolff Breidenbach agitate the abolition of the poll-tax for Jews.
1804. Alexander I of Russia exempts certain classes of Jews from the exceptional laws.
1806. Napoleon I summons the Assembly of Jewish Notables; Abraham Furtado, president. Twelve Questions propounded to the Assembly.
1807. The Great Synhedrion convened by Napoleon; Joseph David Sinzheim president.
1808. The Jews of Westphalia and of Baden emancipated.
1811. The Jews of Hamburg emancipated.
1812. The Jews of Mecklenburg and Prussia emancipated.
1818 (about). Consecration of the Temple of the Hamburg Reform Union, Gotthold Salomon, preacher.
1819. The beginning of the “Hep, hep!” persecutions.
  Formation of the Society for the Culture and Science of the Jews; Zunz, Gans, and Moser.
1821. Chacham Bernays opposes the Reform Temple Union in Hamburg.
1822. Isaac Marcus Jost (1793–1860) begins to publish his history of the Jews.
1825. Isaac Noah Mannheimer (1793–1864), rabbi in Vienna, champion of the moderate party.
1831. Louis Philippe ratifies the law for the complete emancipation of the French Jews.
  Gabriel Riesser (1806–1860), champion of the emancipation of the German Jews.
  Solomon Ludwig Steinheim (1790–1866), Jewish religious philosopher.
  Nachman Cohen Krochmal (1785–1840), Solomon Jehuda Rapoport (1790–1867), Samuel David Luzzatto (1800–1865), Isaac Erter (1792–1851), scholars, regenerators of Jewish science and Hebrew style.
1832. Leopold Zunz (1794–1886) publishes his first epoch-making work.
1833. The Kerem Chemed, a Hebrew journal for Jewish science, established.
1835. Abraham Geiger (1810–1876), scholar and preacher.
1836. Franz Delitzsch publishes his “History of Neo-Hebraic Poetry.”
1839. Sultan Abdul Meg’id grants citizenship to Turkish Jews.
1840. The Damascus blood accusation; Moses Montefiore (1784–1885); Adolf Crémieux (1796–1880); Solomon Munk (1802–1867).
1842. The “Society of the Friends of Reform” founded in Frankfort.
1844. The first Rabbinical Conference at Brunswick; Samuel Holdheim (1806–1860).
1845. The Reform Association formed in Berlin.
  The second Rabbinical Conference at Frankfort; Zachariah Frankel (1801–1875).
  Michael Sachs (1808–1864) publishes his “Religious Poetry of the Jews of Spain.”
1848. The emancipation of the Jews in the German states.
1854. The Breslau Jewish Theological Seminary founded.
1858. The oath “on the true faith of a Christian” abolished in England; Jewish disabilities removed.
  The Mortara abduction case.
1860. The Alliance Israélite Universelle founded.
1871. The Anglo-Jewish Association founded.
1873. The Union of American Hebrew Congregations established.