[114] Sir W. Turner, Opening Address at the British Association, Toronto, 1897, Nature, 2nd Sept. 1897.

[115] See the summary of the question in Ramon y Cajal, Nouv. idées struct. syst. nerveux, French trans., Paris, 1894; also Donaldson, Growth of the Brain, ch. vii., 1895.

[116] See the works of Bowditch on 2,500 American children of both sexes, Eighth Ann. Rep. State Board of Massachusetts (1877); of Pagliani on the Italians (Archivio per l’Antr., 1876, vol. vi.); of Axel Key on 1,800 Swedish children (Intern. Congr. Med., Berlin, 1887); of Schmidt on 10,000 German children, etc.

[117] H. Vierordt, “Das Massen-wachsthum, etc.,” Arch. für Anatom. u. Phys.; Anatom. Division, 1890, supplem. volume, p. 62.

[118] Baelz, “Die Körperlichen Eigenschaften der Japaner,” Mittheil. Deutsch. Gesell. Ost. Asi., 1882, vol. iii., p. 348; Hamada and Sasaki in Seii-Kwai (Japanese Med. Journ. of Tokio), February No., 1890.

[119] Lapicque, Rev. Mens. École. Anthr., 1897, No. 12.

[120] Hyades and Deniker, loc. cit., p. 181.

[121] These figures, as well as those relating to the pulse, are borrowed for the Fuegians from Hyades and Deniker, loc. cit., p. 182; for the American populations from Gould, loc. cit.; for the Europeans from the work of H. Vierordt, Anatomische Daten und Tabellen, 1893; and for the rest from the memoir (in Russian) of Ivanovsky, “The Mongol-Torgootes,” already quoted.

[122] Maurel, Bull. Soc. Anth. Paris, 1883, p. 699; Hyades and Deniker, p. 183.

[123] R. Andree, Ethnol. Parallele, Neue Folge, Leipzig, 1889.

[124] Darwin, Expression of the Emotions, London, 1872; Mantegazza, Physiognomy and Expression (English trans.), London, 1895; M. Duval, Anatomie artistique, p. 285, Paris, 1881.

[125] See Globus, 1897, vol. xxi., No. 7.

[126] Kotelmann, “Die Augen, etc.,” Zeit. f. Ethn., 1884, Verh., p 77.

[127] Dr. Herzenstein, Izviestia, etc., of Friends of Science, Moscow, vol. xlix., part 4, p. 347 (in Russian).

[128] See for further details, Ploss, loc. cit., vol. i., p. 288.

[129] B. Rosenstadt, “Ursachen welche die Zahl der Conceptionen, etc.,” Mitth. Embryol. Instit. Univers. Wien, 2nd series, part 4, Vienna, 1890.

[130] Fr. Müller, Allgem. Ethnographie, 2nd ed., p. 212, Vienna, 1879; Kulischer, Zeit. f. Ethn., vol. viii. (Verh., p. 152), Berlin, 1876.

[131] Correspondence of the Temps of the 6th of February 1896.

[132] J. M. Campbell, Journ. Anthr. Soc. Bombay, vol. iv., 1895, No. 1.

[133] I cannot refute here all the erroneous assertions in regard to the assumed influence of environment, referring the reader to the works of Pallas (Acta of the Acad. of St. Petersburg, 1780, part ii., p. 69) and of Darwin (especially to The Descent of Man). It is enough to give some examples. Negroes are not black because they inhabit tropical countries, seeing that the Indians of South America, who live in the same latitudes, are yellow; Norwegians and Great Russians, who are fair and tall, live side by side with the Laplanders and the Samoyeds, who are dark and of very low stature. It has been said and repeated frequently that the Jews who immigrated to Cochin (India), after the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus, became as black as the indigenous Tamils among whom they live. This is so little true that in this country the name of “white Jews” is given to the descendants of true Jews (who really are white), to distinguish them from the “black Jews” or Tamils converted to Judaism. Further, it has been pretended, according to an assertion of Khanikof, reproduced by Darwin (Descent of Man, p. 304), and repeated by so many others, that the Wurtemburgers of blond type, who emigrated to the Caucasus in 1816, had become dark. This statement is no truer than the preceding one. Radde, who has studied these settlers, says expressly (Zeit. f. Ethnol., vol. ix., Verh., p. 12) that they are as fair as their compatriots who have remained in Germany. According to Pantioukhof (Anth. Observ. in the Caucasus, p. 25, Tiflis, 1893, in Russian), 25 out of 51 of the settlers, or 55 per cent., have light eyes, while in Wurtemburg the proportion of light eyes among children is 65 per cent. (Arch. f. Anthr., 1886, p. 412), which reduces the figure to about 56 per cent. or 58 per cent. for the adults,—a figure very near to the preceding one.

[134] S. Russkikh, “Influence of the Polar Night on the Human Organism,” Zapiski of the Ourtian Friends of Nat. Sc. Soc., Ekaterinburg, 1895 (in Russian).

[135] W. Kochs, “Eine wichtige Veränderung, etc.,” Biol. Centralbl., p. 289, 1891.

[136] Davy, Philos. Transac. Roy. Soc. London, 1850, p. 437.

[137] Darwin, Descent of Man, 3rd ed., p. 208.

[138] Cl. Markham, Travels in India and Peru, London, 1869; Elisée Reclus, Géographie universelle, vol. viii., p. 630, Paris, 1883.

[139] Rosenberg, Malayshe Archip., Leipzig, 1878, Preface.

[140] Huxley, Evidence as to Man’s Place in Nature, London, 1863.

[141] Hettner, Zeits. Gesel. Erdk., vol. xxvi., 1891, p. 137.

[142] Proceedings Geogr. Soc. London, 1891, p. 34.

[143] For details see Bordier, Géogr. Médicale, Paris, 1883, with atlas.

[144] Bull. Géogr. histor. et descript., p. 53, Paris, 1889.

[145] G. de la Tourette, Journal de Médecine, February, 1893.

[146] Brinton, Science, 16th Dec. 1892; and Globus, 1893, 1st half-year, p. 148.

[147] See Logan’s Journal of the Indian Archipelago, vol. iii., Calcutta, 1849, pp. 457, 464, and 530; H. O. O’Brien, “The Latah,” Journ. of the Straits Branch of the R. Asiat. Soc., Singapore, June 1883, p. 144; Metzger, “Amok und Mataglap,” Globus, vol. lii., 1882, No. 7; Rasch, Neurolog. Centralbl., 1894, No. 15; 1895, No. 19.

[148] L. Morgan, Proc. Am. Assoc. Acad. Sc., Detroit Session, 1875, p. 266, and Journal Anthro. Inst., vol. vi., 1878, p. 114. The distinction between the first and the second form lies, according to Morgan, in the knowledge of pottery—a somewhat unreliable and narrow criterion, which, however, does not directly interest us here.

[149] Grosse, Die Formen der Wirtschaft, etc., Leipzig, 1896.

[150] Ratzel, History of Mankind, vol. i., p. 24. London, 1896.

[151] Vierkandt, Naturvölker und Kulturvölker, Leipzig, 1896; and Geogr. Zeitschr., vol. iii., pp. 256 and 315, 2 maps, Leipzig, 1897.

[152] That is to say, engaged in the pursuit of land animals (hunting), or of aquatic (fishing); or gathering plants or fruits.

[153] Andree, Anthropologische Parallele, p. 52.

[154] G. Mallery, “Sign Language,” First Annual Report Bur. of Ethnol., 1879–80, p. 269. Washington, 1881.

[155] See for the details Fr. Müller, Grundr. d. Sprachwissensch., vol. i., Vienna, 1876; Hovelacque, Linguistique, Paris, 1877.

[156] For resumé of the question see A. Keane, Ethnology, p. 206., London, 1896.

[157] Such are the lingua franca and the sabir, a medley of French, English, Italian, and Turkish spread over all the Asiatic and African coast-lines of the Mediterranean, and particularly among the Levantines. Such also is the Pigeon (or Pidjin) English, a mixture of Chinese, English, and Portuguese, employed in the ports of the Far East; the “whalers’ language,” a mixture of Hawaiian, Chinese, English, Chukchi, Japanese, etc., which is heard in the north of the Pacific Ocean; the Foky-Foky of Guiana, etc.

[158] Lajard, Bull. Soc. Anthr. Paris, 1891, p. 469, and 1892, p. 23.

[159] M. Buchner, Kamerun, Leipzig, 1887; Andree, Verh. Berl. Ges. Anthr., 1888, p. 411; Betz, Mitth. Forschungsreisenden deut. Schutzgeb., vol. xi., part 1, 1898.

[160] See for details, H. Hale, “Four Huron Wampum Records,” Journ. Anthr. Inst., vol. xxvi., No. 3 (1887), and the interesting note of E. B. Tylor at the end of this paper. Hamy, Galerie Americ. du Mus. Trocadéro, Paris, 1897, Pl. I.

[161] Harmand, Mém. Soc. Anthro., Paris, 2nd ser., vol. ii., 1875–85, p. 339.

[162] Piette, “Étude d’ethnogr. prehist.,” L’Anthropologie, 1896, No. 4, p. 385. Article accompanied by an excellent folio atlas.

[163] S. Mallery, “Pictographs of the North American Indians,” Fourth Rep. Bur. Ethn., 1882–83, Washington, 1884. By the same, “Picture Writing of the American Indians,” 1888–89, Tenth Rep. Bur. Ethn., 1893.

[164] Among the present natives of Easter Island there are only one or two who can decipher these tablets.—W. Thomson Smith’s Rep. U.S. Nat. Mus., 1889, p. 513.

[165] Aubin, Revue orientale et Americaine, vol. iii., p. 255.

[166] The two hundred and fourteen “keys” or hieroglyphics comparable with the hieratic characters of Egypt—that is to say, ideograms representing categories of objects or symbolising general ideas—joined to a thousand phonetic signs, suffice by their combinations to convey a definite sense to the series of homophonous hieroglyphics forming the forty-four thousand characters of Chinese handwriting. Thus the word or syllable pa signifies banana, war-chariot, scar, cry, etc. To distinguish the various acceptations of the word, there must be joined to the phonetic sign pa (derived from a word the proper sense of which has long been obliterated) the key of plants, or that of iron, of diseases, of the mouth, according to the sense which it is desired to give to it. The monosyllabic structure of Chinese lends itself admirably to this hieroglyphic writing.

[167] The discovery by A. J. Evans of a special syllabic writing in the island of Crete leads one to conjecture, on the contrary, that it was from this unfortunate island that the first alphabet set out. This writing, more ancient than the Phœnician characters, is a direct derivative of pictography; it is found again at Cyprus and in Asia Minor at the epoch of the Ægean civilisation.—A. J. Evans, Rep. Brit. Ass., 1896, p. 914.

[168] C. Vogt, “L’Écriture, etc.,” Rev. Scient., 2nd half-year, p. 1221., Paris, 1880.

[169] Bunge, Lehrbuch physiol. Chemie, 2nd ed., p. 110, Leipzig, 1896.

[170] Goebel, Bull. Ac. Sc. St. Petersb., vol. v. (1861), p. 397, and Schmidt, ibid., vol. xvi. (1871), p. 203.

[171] Wilken, Vergelijk. Volkenk. v. Ned Ind., p. 89, Leyden, 1893; Science et Nature, Paris, 1885, 1st half-year, p. 393.

[172] T. Gautier, “Sur une certaine argile blanche, etc.,” Actes de la Soc. Scient. du Chili, vol. v. (1895), pt. 1 to 3, Santiago, 1895.

[173] Hellwald, Ethnogr. Rosselsprünge, p. 168, Leipzig, 1891.

[174] Thus, merely from a phrase heard from the lips of a Fuegian boy by Byron, and reproduced in the Voyage of the Beagle by Darwin, the Fuegians have until the present time been accused of cannibalism, and yet no observer living months and years among these savages has been able to verify the existence of this custom, in spite of all efforts to discover it.

[175] Wissmann, Im Inneren Afrikas, p. 152, Leipzig, 1888.

[176] P. Bergemann, Verbreitung d. Anthropoph., Breslau, 1893.

[177] Among the Kalebus of Central Africa (between Lomami and Lukassi, 6° lat. S.) the whole of the body is eaten with the exception of the fingers, which are left untouched from a fear of disease “which retires to them as the last place of refuge” (Wissmann).

[178] R. S. Steinmetz, “Endocannibalismus,” Mittheilungen der Anthropol. Gesel. in Wien, vol. xxvi. (xvi.), pt. 1–2, 1896.

[179] It seems to me that Steinmetz’s theory encounters a great difficulty in the fact that anthropophagous peoples (for example, certain Australian tribes) avoid eating relatives, with the exception of infants; the clans exchange one with another the bodies of their dead in order that each may only eat individuals unrelated to it.

[180] Schlegel, “Festgabe Bastians” (suppl. No. to vol. ix. of Internat. Archiv. für Ethnogr., 1896).

[181] W. Hough, “The Methods of Fire-making,” Report of the U.S. National Museum for 1890, p. 95. Washington, 1891.

[182] An apparatus of this sort was in use half a century ago among Polish peasants (Globus, vol. lix., 1891, p. 388).

[183] Tylor, Anthropology, p. 262.

[184] A certain moderation must nevertheless be observed in the explanation of myths and practices in which fire is concerned. See on this subject an intelligent though somewhat exaggerated critique by E. Veckenstedt, “Das wilde, heilige und Gebrauchsfeuer,” Zeitschr. für Naturwiss., vol. lxvi., p. 191, Leipzig, 1893.

[185] O. Mason, Origins of Invention, p. 158, London, 1895.

[186] Otis Mason, loc. cit., p. 158.

[187] Internation. Arch. für Ethnographie, vol. ix., pt. 3, Leyden, 1896.

[188] Revue scientifique, 1892, 1st half-year, p. 145. It is also from hygienic considerations in regard to the mouth that many peoples of India and the Negroes of Senegal chew continually the dried roots of different plants reputed antiseptic. In Siberia and in the east of Russia the chewing of pine resin (“séra”) has probably the same origin. The habit of chewing tobacco is only common among European sailors and among the Javanese and Chukchi.

[189] Hellwald, Rosselsprünge, etc., p. 206

[190] H. Bates, Naturalist on ... Amazons, vol. i., p. 331, London, 1863.

[191] Letourneau, Sociologie, p. 44, Paris, 1880.

[192] The beaten-earth and sun-dried clay structures of the Sudan, of Turkestan, and Mexico are of “secondary formation”; they are derived probably from the straw huts, as we shall see further on.

[193] We call every habitation “fixed” which has not been constructed with the view of being removed, however light and imperfect it be. Thus, the rude hut which the Fuegian abandons so readily is nevertheless a fixed habitation, whilst the tent of the Kirghiz, a much more complicated structure, and far more comfortable, must nevertheless be classed among movable habitations.

[194] E. B. Tylor, Anthropology, p. 281.

[195] L. Hösel, “Die Rechteckige Schrägdachhütte Mittelafrikas,” Globus, 1894, vol. xxvi., pp. 341, 360, and 378, with map.

[196] There are many other types of dwellings peculiar to different regions: the reed-built houses of Lob Nor (Eastern Turkestan), the Finnish houses derived from semi-underground structures, the dwellings of the Caucasian mountaineers, etc.

[197] This tent has never, as a general rule, been placed among the Turco-Mongols on a waggon, to be carried from place to place, as authors have been pleased to affirm, from Rubruquis to our own day. The habit in question has only existed in some Nogaï tribes, and has only been practised in special circumstances (marriage, conveyance of women), the survival of which is found among the Tatars of Koundrov, near Astrakhan.

[198] Kharouzin, Istoria, etc. (History of the Development of the Habitation among Turco-Mongol Nomads of Russia), Moscow, 1896 (in Russian).

[199] It is possible that in Western Europe a hard leaf of some plant folded in a certain way has served as a model for the lamps with wicks called Roman, to judge from certain actual forms.—Letourneau and Papillault, Bull. Soc. Anthr. Paris, 1896, p. 348. Vinchon, ibid., p. 615.

[200] Neis, Excursions et Reconnaissances, Saigon, vol. x., p. 33, 1881.

[201] Von den Steinen, Unter d. Naturvölk, Zent. Brazil, Berlin, 1894, p. 190.

[202] Glaumont, “Usages, etc.,” Rev. d’Ethnogr., Paris, 1888, p. 101.

[203] C. Davidson, “Das Nackte, etc.,” Globus, vol. lxx., 1896, No. 18.

[204] Mme. Dr. Gaches-Sarraute, L’Hygiène du Corset, Paris, 1896.

[205] This intentional deformation must be distinguished from that which is caused by the manner of placing the child in the cradle. This is always less strongly marked, and may pass unnoticed in the head of the living subject, but it may always be recognised in the skull.

[206] See for the details, L. A. Gosse, Essai déform. artif. crâne, Paris, 1885; Broca, Instr. craniol., 1875; P. Topinard, Revue Anthro., 1879, p. 497, and Elem. Anthro., p. 744; Delisle, Déform. du crâne, Paris, 1880, and Congr. Américaniste, Paris, 1892, p. 300; Ambialet, L’Anthropologie, 1893, p. 11.

[207] O. Mason, loc. cit., p. 274.

[208] Note also that almost everywhere foot-gear and often head-gear are made from materials obtained from the mammals: leather, fur, and felt.

[209] See for details W. Brigham, “Hawaiian Kapa-making,” Hawaiian Alman. and Annual, p. 76. Honolulu, 1896.

[210] Tylor, Anthropology, p. 246.

[211] For details see G. de Mortillet, Origines de la chasse, de la pêche, etc.; O. Mason, loc. cit.; Tylor, Anthrop.; Holmes, Fifteenth Rep. Bur. Ethnol.

[212] Weeren, “Analyse, etc.,” Verh. Berl. Ges. Anthr., June-Oct. 1895.

[213] Reuleaux, Hist. du développ. des machines dans l’humanité (translated from the German), Paris, 1876 (extr. from the section Cinématique).

[214] This is a long woven bag in which the tough warp and woof run spirally and diagonally, so that when the two ends are forced together the cylinder becomes short and wide, and when pulled apart, it becomes long and slender.

[215] Hahn, Die Hausthiere, etc., Leipzig, 1896, in 8vo, with map.

[216] This opinion of Hahn’s appears to be corroborated by this fact, that millet is still the “national cereal” of the Turkish peoples, who, like all other nomad shepherds, beginning with hoe-culture, have arrived at their present state through having preferred to breed animals other than those used in ploughing—that is to say, the camel, sheep, and later, the horse.

[217] Th. Studer, “Beiträge zur Geschichte unserer Hunderassen,” Naturwissench. Wochenschrift, 1897, No. 28. See also Mem. Soc. Hélvétique sciences naturelles, 1896.

[218] K. Groos, Die Spiele der Thiere, 1896; Die Spiele der Menschen, 1899.

[219] Roulette flourished among the Eskimo of Greenland in the eighteenth century; it is known under the name of “Chombino” among the Assiniboines and Blackfeet Indians.—H. Egede and Wied, cited by Andree, Ethnogr. Paral., p. 104 (Neue Folge).

[220] See the interesting study on this game by Tylor, Journ. Anthr. Inst., vol. viii., p. 116, and in Internationales Archiv. Ethnog., suppl. vol. ix. (Festg. Bastian), Leyden, 1896.

[221] “Hawaiian Surf-Riding,” Haw. Alman., p. 106, Honolulu, 1896.

[222] See, for more details, the excellent article of Andree on “Masks” in his Ethnographische Parallele, Neue Folge, p. 107.

[223] In this connection see E. Grosse, Die Anfänge der Kunst, Freib. and Leip., 1894; Haddon, Evolution in Art, London, 1895; H. Stolpe, Studies i Amerikansk Ornamentik, Stockholm, 1896.

[224] Von den Steinen, Unt. Natürvolk. Zent. Braz., Berlin, 1894.

[225] See the plate at p. 77 of Haddon’s work, already quoted.

[226] Andree, Eth. Paral., N.F., p. 67.

[227] See on this subject I. Lang, Billedkunst. Fremstell., etc.; Vidensk. Selsk. Shrif., 5th series; Hist. Philos., vol. v., No. 4, Copenhagen, 1892 (with French Summary).

[228] Wallaschek, Primitive Music, chap. viii., London, 1893.

[229] Grosse, Anf. d. Kunst, chap. iii.

[230] Miss. Scientif. Cap Horn; vol. i. Hist. d. Voy. by Martial, p. 210, Paris, 1888.