That the magicians were conscious of their inability to work miracles, is evident from their own declaration; for, after vermin had been brought forth by Moses and Aaron, they endeavoured to do the same, and being unsuccessful declared, that this was the finger of God; and many other instances are recorded of their attempts being altogether abortive. It appears also, that at first they believed they were able to perform all that Moses had done; and Pharaoh himself, by calling them together for that purpose, seemed to be of the same opinion, until he and his servants were finally convinced that Moses and Aaron wrought such miracles by inspiration. There can be no relation whatever between Moses and the magicians; for although he was, if we may judge from biblical history, acquainted with all the knowledge of the magicians, his mission was altogether of a different character. Many of the modern Greek and Armenian priests, in their celebration of the holy fire, palm upon their credulous followers, a belief, that they possess the power of working miracles, as will appear from the account we shall give of them. We will not enlarge on this subject at present, but pass on to consider the more common performances, which have excited the wonder and admiration of mankind.

The deception of breathing out flames, which excites the astonishment of the ignorant, is very ancient. When the slaves of Sicily, about two centuries ago, made a formidable insurrection, and avenged themselves in a cruel manner for the severities which they had suffered, there was among them a Syrian named Eunus, a man of great craft and courage, who, having passed through many scenes of life, had become acquainted with a variety of arts. He pretended to have immediate communication with the gods; was the oracle and leader of his fellow slaves; and, as is usual on such occasions, confirmed his divine mission by miracles. When, heated by enthusiasm, he was desirous of inspiring his followers with courage, he breathed flames or sparks among them from his mouth while he was addressing them. We are told by historians, that, for this purpose, he pierced a nut shell at both ends, and, having filled it with some burning substance, put it into his mouth and breathed through it. Some affirm, that he used tow previously soaked in a solution of saltpetre. The deception at present is much better performed. The juggler rolls together some flax or hemp; sets it on fire; and suffers it to burn till it is nearly consumed; he then rolls round it, while burning, some more flax, and by these means the fire may be retained in it a long time. When he wishes to exhibit, he slips the ball into his mouth and breathes through it; which again revives the fire, so that a number of weak sparks proceed from it; and the performer sustains no hurt, provided he inspire the air not through the mouth but the nostrils.

By this art, the rabbi Bar-Cacheba, in the reign of the emperor Hadrian, made the credulous Jews believe, that he was the hoped for Messias, and two centuries after, the emperor Constantius was thrown into great terror, when Valentian informed him, that he had seen one of the body guards breathing out fire and flames in the evening.

It appears evident from the writings of Herodotus, that the ancients possessed a knowledge of attracting lightning, or the electric fluids with pointed instruments made of iron. He informs us, that the Thracians disarmed heaven of its thunder-bolts, by discharging arrows into the air; and the Hyperboreans by darting into the clouds, pikes headed with pieces of sharp pointed iron.

Pliny speaks of a process, by which Porsena caused fire from the heavens to fall upon a monster which ravaged his country. He mentions also, that Numa Pompilius, and Tullius Hostilius practised certain mysterious rites to call down the fire from heaven. What these mysterious rites were is of no moment; the fact is sufficient. Tullius, because he omitted some prescribed ceremony, is said to have been killed by the fire. A similar accident happened in France with the electrical kite.[10]

For deceptions with fire, the ancients employed a number of inflammable substances, which they dexterously used; among them, naphtha, a fine bituminous oil, which readily inflames, was principally used. (For the effect of naphtha, see Greek fire.) Galen informs us, that a person excited great surprise by extinguishing a candle, and again lighting it without any other process than holding it against a wall or a stone. This, Galen observes, (De Temperamentis, iii. 2, p. 44.) was effected in consequence of the wall or stone being previously rubbed with sulphur, which, however, must have been something more. He also speaks of a mixture of sulphur and naphtha. If it had been phosphorus, or some of its preparations, it would appear more probable.

Plutarch relates the secret effects of naphtha, and observes, that Alexander was astonished and delighted, when it was exhibited to him in Ecbatana. Medea destroyed Creusa, the daughter of Creon, with this oil. This fact is stated by Plutarch, Pliny, Galen, and others, and believed by Beckman. She sent, it appears, to the unfortunate princess, a dress covered with it, which burst into flames as soon as she approached the fire of the altar. The dress of Hercules, which also took fire, was dipped in naphtha, though said to be in the blood of Nessus. On the subject of naphtha, Beckman remarks, "that this oil must have been employed when offerings caught fire in an imperceptible manner. In all periods of the world, priests have acted as jugglers to simple and ignorant people."

The most ludicrous account of the necromantic art, by which similar tricks were performed, is that given by Celini, (Life of Benvenuto Celini, a Florentine Artist, by T. Nugent, LL. D. &c.) of a Sicilian priest, who drew circles on the floor with various ceremonies, using fire and different perfumes. Having made an opening to the circle, and thrown perfumes into the fire at a proper time, he observes, that in the space of an hour and half, "there appeared several legions of devils, insomuch that the amphitheatre was quite filled with them." Benvenuto, it seems, at the instance of the priest, asked some favours of them, which, however, he never realized. At a second exhibition he held a pentagorun, while the priests questioned the leaders of the demons "by the virtue and power of the eternal uncreated God," using the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin languages. The Demons appeared more numerous than at first, and more formidable. He states that "quivering like an aspen leaf, he took good care of the perfumes," and was directed by the priest "to burn proper perfumes." This ceremony was continued until the "bell rang for morning prayers," and the priest "stripped off his gown and took up a wallet-full of books," declaring, "that as often as he had entered magic circles, nothing so extraordinary had ever happened to him!" How is it, in the language of professor Beckman, that "in all periods of the world, priests have acted as jugglers to simple and ignorant people?"    *   *   *   *   *

This same Benvenuto Celini, however, was a man of intelligence. He wrote a work called the History of Jewelry; in which the first idea of phosphorescent mineral bodies is to be found. This work was written in the beginning of the 16th century. His life, although singularly marked, what with popes, priests, artists, and necromancers, presents a singular retrospect.

What was more absurd, and even profane, than the tricks of Joseph Balsamo, called Il Conte Cagliostro, who with Schœpfer, revived the study of the magical arts; and who with invocations, friction, fumigations, and optical deceptions astonished the ignorant of their day. Whether like Æneas, in his descent to hell, they made their way with their falchions through crowds of ghosts, or like Dioscorides, relied on the efficacy of herbs, or like Paracelsus, carried an evil spirit in their canes, or wore a jewel like Shakspeare's toad, which possessed marvellous virtues, or employed the magic stone (agate) of the east, and invoked their urim and thummim,—it is certain they worked upon the imagination of the people. By the application of conium maculatum, (hemlock) consisted the ceremony of ordaining a Hierophant; by the hartshorn of Orpheus, they had a divine remedy for the passions of the body; and by a mixture of new mustard and olive oil, they could produce a symphony, which invoked the spirits, and, Pythonesis like, declare to the people, that they "had devils in their bellies!!"

Of the phial of Cagliostro, Cardan relates that he had this phial twice exhibited to him, and complains bitterly of having seen nothing, after the anthem Sancte Michael, but some bubbles that issued from the bottom, though it was believed that these bubbles were angels! He says, "Nihil tamen omnino vidi poste hanc invocationem nisi bulas pauculas quasdam ex imo gutti fundo exæstuantes." Aulus Gellius and Hero mention tricks of this kind practised by the Egyptians. Roger Bacon, the alchymist, was excommunicated by the pope, and imprisoned ten years, for supposed dealings with the devil.

Equally absurd to a man of reflection, are the observations of antiquated writers on spontaneous generation, by heat. Borello (Physical History) tells us, "that fresh water craw fish may be regenerated, by their own powder, calcined in a crucible, then boiled in water with a little sand, and left to cool, for a few days; when the animalcula will appear swimming merrily in the liquor, and must be then nourished with beef blood, till they attain the proper size to stock your ponds with."[11] The Sieur Pogeris and M. de Chamberlan, both agree with Signior Borello, but, in the chemistry of the matter, they add that the operation must be performed, during the full of the moon! If this lunar system be adopted, would not the crab also, have been a more favourable sign to have ruled the nativity of craw fish?

Swift, however, alludes to these agencies, fallacious as they are, in the following lines:

Rochos, equally absurd with Borello, says, in The Art of Nature, that the ashes of toads will produce the very same effect, as the powder of crabs' eyes! Reasoning upon that ridiculous and unnatural principle of Cæsalpinus, in his comment on Aristotle, Quæcumque ex semine fiunt, eadem fieri posse sine semine, the procreation of eels from rye-meal, or mutton broth was predicated.

Julius Camillus, however, would out-do nature herself; for Amatus Lusitanus affirms, that he has seen his phials full of homunculi complete in all their parts! Paracelsus (De Rerum Natura,) had the same and many other absurd notions. What, we may truly say, has not been palmed upon the world, when we are told, that the following translation from a Hague Gazette, which appeared in the British Evening Post, No. 1645, contained facts, which were confidently believed by the ignorant:

"Mr. Tunestrick, by origin an Englishman, has just exhibited at Versailles, a very singular experiment. He opened the head of a sheep, and a horse from side to side, by driving a large iron wedge into the skull, by means of a mallet; drew the wedge out afterwards, with pincers, and recalled the animals to life, by injecting through their exterior aperture with a tin syringe, a spirituous liquor of his own composition, to which he attributes surprising effects! The taste of this liquor resembles that of Commandus Balm!!" The remarkable effects of galvanism, however, are well authenticated; but resuscitation, notwithstanding all apparent life, has in no instance, to our knowledge, been effected. (See Ure's Chemical Dictionary, article Galvanism.)

Among other tricks, we may mention those with serpents, especially in the East Indies, and neighbouring islands, where a certain class of people exhibit them for money.[12]

Persons who could walk over red-hot coals, or red-hot iron, or who could hold them in their hands and their teeth, are frequently mentioned. In the end of the 17th century, Richardson, an Englishman, was a great adept in this performance. We are assured he could chew burning coals, pour melted lead upon his tongue, swallow melted glass, &c; but the fact is incredible.

It is true, that the skin may be prepared in such a way as to become callous and insensible against the impression made on the feet and hands. It may be rendered as firm as shoes and gloves. Such callosity may be produced, if the skin is continually compressed, singed, pricked, or injured in any other manner. Beckman relates, that in 1765, he visited the copper-works at Awestad, when one of the workmen, for some money, took some of the melted copper in his hand, and after showing it, threw it against a wall. He performed a variety of other experiments with the melted metal.

The workmen at the Swedish melting-house have exhibited the same thing to some travellers in the 17th century. The skin is first rendered callous by frequently moistening it, as Beckman says, with sulphuric acid; and also, he remarks, by using the juice of certain plants. The skin must also be rubbed frequently, and for a long time, with oil. Haller, in his Elementa Physiologica, V. p. 16, speaks of this fact.

The manner of rendering the hands callous, or insensible, so that they may take up, and hold, ignited iron, charcoal, or other substances, may be seen in an English publication of 1667. The Journal des Savants, of 1677, contains the secret. "It consists in applying to the hands, various pastes, with spirits of sulphur, (sulphuric acid,) which destroys the epidermis, &c. and the nervous energy." This corroborates the account by Beckman. We read that Richardson had prepared his tongue in such a manner, that he could hold on the point of it a live coal, covering it first with pitch, rosin, and sulphur, and could hold a piece of ignited iron between his teeth. After showing the coal on his tongue, he would then extinguish it in his mouth. The Mémoires de l'Académie state, that a person who is salivated can put a live coal in his mouth. The Dictionnaire de l'Industrie observes, that the sulphur diminishes the heat of the coal, for the flame is less hot than a candle; and that the flame of a combination of pitch, rosin, and sulphur, is still less hot, and by no means so considerable as we would imagine. In the experiment, the rosin is not melted, and the flame of the sulphur is inconsiderable. M. Gallois observes, that he witnessed in the Swedish iron founderies, the men hold melted cast iron in their hands, doubtless having them previously prepared.

The traces of this art may be found in the works of the ancients. A festival was held annually, on Mount Soracta, in Etruria, at which the Hirpi, who lived not far from Rome, jumped through burning coals, and on this account had certain privileges granted them by the Roman Senate.

Women also, we are informed, were accustomed to walk over burning coals, at Cartabola, in Cappadocia, near the temple dedicated to Diana. Servius remarks, that the Hirpi did not trust to their sanctity so much as they did to the preparation of their feet for the operation!

With respect to the ordeal by fire, which it seems was performed in several ways, one was, that when persons were accused, they were obliged to prove their innocence by holding in their hands red-hot iron. This mode of exculpation, as it is called, was allowed only to weak persons, who were unfit to wield arms, and particularly to monks and ecclesiastics, to whom, for the sake of their security, the trial by single combat was forbidden. In Grupius' learned dissertation, in the German, p. 679, as quoted by Beckman, we read, that the trial itself took place in the church, under the inspection of the clergy; mass was celebrated at the same time; the defendant and the iron, were consecrated, by being sprinkled with holy water; the clergy made the iron hot themselves; and they used all these preparations, as jugglers do many motions, only to divert the attention of the spectators. It was necessary that the accused person should remain at least three days and three nights, under their immediate care, and continue as long after. They covered their hands both before and after the proof; sealed and unsealed the covering: the former, as they pretended, to prevent the hands from being prepared by art; and the latter to see if they were burnt.

Some artificial preparation was undoubtedly necessary, or why prescribe three days for the defendant, who, if they wished to make him appear innocent, had a certain preventive against the actual cautery? The three days allotted, after the trial, were requisite, in order to restore the hands to their natural state. The sacred sealing secured them from the examination of presumptuous unbelievers.

When the ordeal was abolished, it no longer was kept secret. In the 13th century, an account of it was published by a Dominican Monk, Albertus Magnus. In the work of this author, entitled, De Mirabilibus Mundi, he has given the receipt for the composition. It seems that it consisted in covering the hands with a kind of paste, and not by searing them. The sap of the althæa, or marsh mallow, the mucilaginous seeds of the fleabane, together with the white of an egg, were mixed, and by applying this mixture, the hands were as safe as if they had been secured by gloves. The use of this mixture, for the same purpose, may be traced back, it is said, to a pagan origin. In the Antigone of Sophocles, the guards, placed over the body of Polynicus, which had been carried away and buried, contrary to the orders of Creon, offered, in order to prove their innocence, to submit to any trial: "We will," said they, "take up red-hot iron in our hands, or walk through fire."

The ordeal, by heated ploughshares, was common in England. It seems, according to English History, that queen Emma had charges preferred against her, by Robert, archbishop of Canterbury, for consenting to the death of her son Alfred, and preparing poison for her son Edward, the Confessor. She claimed, by the law of the land, the ordeal, or trial, by burning ploughshares. She passed the nine ploughshares unhurt, which established her innocence, and caused the archbishop to fly the kingdom. The chief trials, by ordeal, appear to have been by fire, water, walking blindfold among heated ploughshares, and swallowing consecrated bread, which last was introduced about the time of pope Eugene. The custom was borrowed from the Mosaic law. An example of its practice occurs in the New Testament, in the story of Ananias and Sapphira; and the remembrance of it, as Blackstone remarks, still subsists among common people, as "May this morsel be my last;" "May I be choked if it is so," and the like; for it appears, that this ordeal was a piece of bread of about an ounce in weight, blessed by the priest, and given to the accused person, who was to try and swallow it, praying that it might choke him if he were guilty. The bible-ordeal, and the drowning-ordeal, are familiar to every one, degrading as they all must have been to human reason, and enlightened principles. Fox, in his Book of Martyrs, speaks of various ordeals, as well as the cruel deaths, and inhuman punishments inflicted, by the hand of bigotry, and fanaticism, under the cloak of religion, which were nothing more than a base and impious prostitution of its genuine principles.

Even among the modern Greeks, the same superstitious notions prevail. Almost every cavern about Athens has its particular virtues, and is celebrated for various things; and the offerings, made by Grecian women, to the destinies, in order to make them propitious to their conjugal speculations, are equally absurd. These offerings, by which they are to work a miracle, consist of a cup of honey and white almonds, a cake on a little napkin, and a vase of aromatic herbs, burning and exhaling an agreeable perfume. We are told, however, that those evil spirits, whose assistance is invoked, for vengeance and blood, are not regaled upon cakes and honey, but on a piece of a priest's cap, or a rag from his garment, which are considered as the most favourable ingredients for the perpetration of malice and revenge. When a person is hated, another absurd custom is used, which is supposed to be followed by dreadful results. It consists in placing before his door, a log of wood, burnt at one end, with some hairs twisted round it. "This curse," says Mr. Dodwell, in his Classical Tour, "was placed with due solemnity, at the door of the English agent, Speridion Logotheti, while I was at Athens; but he rendered it of no avail, by summoning a great number of priests, who easily destroyed the spell, by benediction, frankincense, and holy water!" This story is much in character with that of the exorcism of rats, caterpillars, flies, and other insects, an old ritual of the papal church, performed between the feasts of Easter and the Ascension. A priest who resided at Bononia, performed the ceremony. "I went," he says, "to exorcise the insects in that country, accompanied by a curate, who was a droll fellow, and laughed at the credulity of the people, while he pocketed their money." It appears, however, that in all superstitious ceremonies, fire, under some form, was a pre-requisite; but ecclesiastical fire-works we leave within the pales of the priesthood.

The author of the Dictionnaire de l'Industrie, vol. iii, speaks of a trick, performed with a loaded musket and ball, which, although apparently inconsistent, is nevertheless true, if we consider the action of gunpowder equal. This trick is stated to be the firing of a musket, loaded with ball, at a person, without wounding, or in any way injuring him.

By taking a ball of solid lead of a smaller size than the calibre of the musket, and placing it on the charge in a gun, and as much or nearly so of powder, over the ball, the effect we are assured is, that when the gun is fired, the ball will pass out without any very sensible force, and even drop a few yards from the gun, although the report will be as great as if the charge and ball had been used in the usual manner. This trick is often performed by jugglers, to the great astonishment of the spectators. The mode of catching a cannon ball is also of the same character.

The proper charge of powder for the cannon, is divided into two unequal portions, the lesser of which is placed in the gun as a charge; the ball is placed on it in the usual way, and the rest of the powder (by much the greater portion,) placed over the ball, the lesser quantity being not more than a twelfth part of the whole. A cannon, so charged, will not project the ball more than 20 yards, where it might be caught with safety.

Any person who has been in the custom of shooting, must have frequently observed, that when the shot happens to be mixed with the powder, its range is impeded; and, under similar circumstances, they have even been found only a few yards from the muzzle of the piece. This fact I have witnessed, although I confess I never once reflected on it.

As to the explanation of this phenomenon, it appears, that it can only be accounted for by referring to the action of two opposite forces, mutually repelling each other, added to that of the charge under the ball; hence, the reaction would be equal, if, under the same circumstances, both charges were alike situated: but the effect of the first charge is so much weakened by the counter effect of the second, that the projectile force of the ball becomes comparatively nothing.

There is another trick very often performed, which, however chemical, is not looked upon in that light, neither do performers attempt to explain it; we mean the exhibition of the Glace Inflammable of the French.

The preparation is made in the following manner: melt some spermaceti over a fire, and add a sufficient quantity of spirit of turpentine, and blend them together. The mixture when cold, will become solid, having somewhat the appearance of ice. If made in hot weather, the vessel containing the melted substances must be immersed in cold water. It does not, we are told, remain in a solid state any length of time.

It floats more or less in the fluid, which of course is the spirit of turpentine. The trick, with this preparation, after having put some of the solid and fluid substance together on a plate, is to pour upon it concentrated nitric acid, or a mixture of eight or ten parts of nitric acid, and two of sulphuric acid; inflammation ensues. It is no other in fact than accension of the oil of turpentine; the addition of the spermaceti is altogether secondary, and its effect, if any, must retard instead of promoting the combustion of the turpentine. The art of making this preparation is in rendering the essential oil solid and transparent, without altering its inflammable properties.

There is another trick performed, by burning a thread, to which an ear-ring is tied, and which, notwithstanding the thread is reduced to a cinder, still holds the ring. This is what the French call the Bague suspendue aux cendres d'un fil. The string is first prepared by soaking it for 24 hours, in a solution of common salt, and drying it; then tying it to a ring, and setting it on fire, avoiding any vibration or oscillation of the string. It is obvious that the salt serves to render the cinder cohesive.

We have an account in Maundrel's Travels from Aleppo to Jerusalem, of the office of the Holy Fire. The ceremony is kept up by the Greeks and Armenians, from a persuasion that every Easter eve, a miraculous flame descends from heaven into the holy sepulchre, and lights all the lamps and candles, as the sacrifice was consumed at the prayers of Elijah.

"On our approaching the holy sepulchre," says Maundrel, "we found it crowded with a numerous and distracted mob, who made a hideous clamour; but with some difficulty pressing through the crowd, we got up in the gallery next to the Latin convent, where we could have a view of all that passed. The people began, by running with all their might, round the holy sepulchre, crying out 'huia,' which signifies, 'This is he,' or, 'This is it.' After this, they began to perform many antic tricks: sometimes they dragged one another along the floor round the sepulchre; sometimes marched round with a man upright upon another's shoulders; at others, took men with their heels upwards, and hurried them about with such indecency, as to expose their nudities; and sometimes they tumbled round the sepulchre like tumblers on a stage. In a word, nothing can be imagined more rude and extravagant than what was acted upon this occasion.

"This frantic humour continued from twelve till four, and then the Greeks first set out in a procession round the sepulchre, followed by the Armenians, and marched three times round it with their standards, streamers, crucifixes, and embroidered habits; and towards the end of the procession, a pidgeon came fluttering into the cupola over the sepulchre, at which the people redoubled their shouts and clamours, when the Latins told the English gentlemen, that this bird was let fly by the Greeks, to deceive the people with a belief that it was a visible descent of the Holy Ghost. The procession being over, the suffragan of the Greek patriarch, and the principal Armenian bishop, approached the door of the sepulchre, cut the string with which it was fastened, and breaking the seal, entered, shutting the door after them, all the candles and lamps within having been before extinguished in the presence of the Turks. As the accomplishment of the miracle drew near, the exclamations were redoubled, and the people pressed with such violence towards the door, that the Turks could not keep them off with the severest blows. This pressing forward was occasioned by the desire to light their candles at the holy flame as soon as it was brought out of the sepulchre. The two miracle-mongers had not been above a minute in the sepulchre, when the glimmering of the holy fire was seen through some chinks in the door, which made the mob as mad as any in bedlam; then presently came out the priests, with blazing torches in their hands, which they held up at the door of the sepulchre, while the people thronged with extraordinary zeal to obtain a part of the first and purest flame, though the Turks laid on with their clubs without mercy. Those who got the fire immediately applied it to their beards, faces, and bosoms, pretending that it would not burn like an earthly flame; but none of them would endure the experiment long enough to make good that pretension. However, so many tapers were presently lighted, that the whole church seemed in a blaze, and this illumination concluded the ceremony."

Maundrel afterwards observes, that the Latins take great pains to expose this ceremony as a shameful imposition, and a scandal to the Christian Religion: but the Greeks and Armenians, lay such stress upon it, that they make the pilgrimages chiefly on this account; and their priests have acted the cheat so long, that they are forced now to stand to it, for fear of endangering the apostacy of the people. They entertain many absurd ideas respecting the miraculous power of the holy fire. Even the melted wax of the candle, which had been lighted by it, is covered over with linen, and designed for winding-sheets; "for they imagine," says Maundrel, "that if they are buried in a shroud, smutted with this celestial fire, it will secure them from the flames of hell!"

Before concluding this article, we shall mention a subject highly interesting in optics, which, in some of its forms, was employed by the old magicians; we mean the phantasmagoria. The exhibitions of this kind, when first got up, drew the attention of Europeans, and particularly the French, who greatly improved the apparatus and machinery, and varied the forms and appearances. The principles of the phantasmagoria are described in every work on Natural Philosophy, which treats of optics. The Dictionnaire de l'Industrie, Encyclopedie Méthodique, Biot's Traité de Physique, in French and in English, the different treatises on philosophy and optics, particularly Dr. Smith's, the Cyclopedias, &c. contain either a description, or the principles of it. The third volume of Biot, especially, is full on the subject of optics. With regard, however, to the narrative and explanation of the appearance of the phantoms, and other figures, a subject which immediately concerns us, the account given by Mr. Nicholson, (Journal of Natural Philosophy, Chymistry, and the Arts, vol. i, p. 147.) is the most interesting. Connected with this optical illusion, is the imitation of lightning and thunder, which, from the account, appears also to have been performed.

The phantasmagoria may be considered nothing more than an application of the magic lantern, the invention of which is attributed to Roger Bacon, who was a contemporary with Vitellio, a native of Poland, who published a treatise on optics, in 1270. John Babtista Porta, of Naples, who discovered the camera obscura, having formed a society of ingenious persons at Naples, which he called the Academy of Secrets, wrote the Magia Naturalis, containing his account of this instrument, and, it is said, the first hint of the magic lantern. Kircher, it is known, received his first information of the magic lantern from this book, and afterwards improved it.

We may also remark, that optical exhibitions sometimes accompany those of fire, when performed on a small scale. In the phantasmagoria, for instance, whether before, or at the time the exhibition commences, as well as after, thunder and lightning, if well imitated, produces a good effect.

The mechanism of the phantasmagoria is concealed from the spectators, who have only before their eyes a screen of gauze or gummed muslin posited vertically, which serves as the ground of a picture, where the images are depicted by reason of the transparency. The apartment is deprived of all light, except that which proceeds from an apparatus hid behind the screen. At the moment when the operation commences, a spectre appears (as a skeleton, the head of a celebrated person, &c.), at first extremely small, but which afterwards increases rapidly, and thus seems to advance at a great rate towards the spectators. And when the scene passes before them in a room representing a cave hung with black, a solemn silence being occasionally interrupted by mournful sounds from an appropriate musical instrument, it is not easy for an observer to defend himself from the impression of terror, at the sight of an object, in itself formed to produce the illusion, and which finds in the imagination a place already prepared for the reception of phantoms.

The instrument placed behind the gauze screen is in fact a peculiar construction of the magic lantern: only in the former, it is necessary that the lenses should run over a much greater space, and that the instrument may be susceptible of approaching to, and receding from, the frame of gauze, in such manner, that each luminous pencil may be depicted there in a single point. The general construction is this: In a square box, a lamp is placed, the luminous rays proceeding from which, are reflected by a conical mirror, towards an orifice made in the box. At this orifice is placed a tube, blackened within, and composed of several tubes which slide one into another, like those of a pocket telescope. This tube is furnished with two bi-convex lenses of about five inches diameter; one of these is fixed, the other is at the outer extremity of the tube, and is separated from the former in proportion as the tube is lengthened by the aid of a hooked lever situated along the tube, between the lamp and the lenses. A groove is properly adapted to the tube, destined to receive transparent figures; lastly, the box rests upon a table moveable on four wheels, that slide in two channels perpendicularly to the frame on which the images are depicted. It is manifest, that we may augment or diminish the dimensions of the images, and consequently make the spectre appear more or less near to the spectator, by separating farther, or by bringing nearer together, the two lenses; but then the focus of the diverging rays, which proceed from the same point of the transparent body, will be no longer upon the screen; we must, therefore, cause the machine so to recede or approach, that the two motions, being duly combined, the image may be distinctly formed.

These phantasmagoria are furnished with a great number of transparencies, in each of which, several changes may be made by slackening their springs. Thus we may change at every instant, the form, the magnitude, and the distance of the spectres, as they appear to the spectator.

What has been said hitherto, relates only to the images of transparent figures. To obtain those of opaque bodies, first place the gauze and box, at the distance of about six feet one from the other, and adapt to the orifice of the box, an apparatus of two tubes furnished with two bi-convex lenses. An opaque body, such, for example, as a medal, or a picture, is attached to a little support, posited in the middle of the box; the lamp with its supply of air, situated in one of the foremost corners of the box, illuminates that object, and the reflected rays, crossing the lenses, proceed till they trace the image upon the gauze, with an amplification which is in the ratio of the distances.

If the image be not distinct, we must infer that it is not at the focus; but it may be adjusted in three different ways; 1. By moving the box to or from the gauze; 2. By moving the object nearer to, or farther from, the lenses within the box; 3. By slowly moving the tubes, to cause a variation in the distance between the lenses.—See Haüy's Philosophy, translated by Gregory, vol. ii, p. 390.

Mr. Nicholson, however, witnessed an exhibition of the phantasmagoria at the London Lyceum by Philipstal, who took out a patent for his improvements in the apparatus and machinery. He observes, that the novelty consists in placing the lantern on the opposite side of the screen which receives the images, instead of on the same side as the spectator, and suffering no light to appear but what passes through, and tends to form those images. His sliders are therefore perfectly opaque, except that portion upon which the transparent figures are drawn, and the exhibition is thus conducted.

All the lights of the small theatre of exhibition were removed, except one hanging lamp, which could be drawn up, so that its flame should be perfectly enveloped in a cylindrical chimney, or opaque shade. In this gloomy and wavering light, the curtain was drawn up, and presented to the spectator a cave or place exhibiting skeletons, and other figures or terror, in relief, and painted on the sides or walls. After a short interval, the lamp was drawn up, and the audience were in total darkness, succeeded by thunder and lightning; which last appearance was formed by the magic lantern upon a thin cloth or screen, let down after the disappearance of the light, and consequently unknown to most of the spectators. These appearances were followed by figures of departed men, ghosts, skeletons, transmutations, &c. produced on the screen by the magic lantern on the other side, and moving their eyes, mouth, &c. by the well known contrivance of two or more sliders. The transformations are effected by moving the adjusting tube of the lantern out of focus, and changing the slider during the moment of the confused appearance.

It must be again remarked, that these figures appear without any surrounding circle of illumination, and that the spectators, having no previous view or knowledge of the screen, nor any visible object of comparison, are each left to imagine the distance according to their respective fancy. After a very short time of exhibiting the first figure, it was seen to contract gradually in all its dimensions, until it became extremely small, and then vanished. This effect, as may easily be imagined, is produced by bringing the lantern nearer and nearer the screen, taking care at the same time to preserve the distinctness, and at last closing the aperture altogether: and the process being (except as to brightness) exactly the same as happens when visible objects become more remote, the mind is irresistibly led to consider the figures, as if they were receding to an immense distance.

Several figures of celebrated men were thus exhibited with some transformations; such as the head of Dr. Franklin being converted into a skull, and these were succeeded by phantoms, skeletons, and various terrific figures, which instead of seeming to recede and then vanish, were (by enlargement) made suddenly to advance; to the surprise and astonishment of the audience, and then disappear by seeming to sink into the ground.

This part of the exhibition, which by the agitation of the spectators appeared to be much the most impressive, had less effect with me than the receding of the figures; doubtless because it was more easy for me to imagine the screen to be withdrawn than brought forward. But among the young people who were with me, the judgments were various. Some thought they could have touched the figures, others had a different notion of their distance, and a few apprehended that they had not advanced beyond the first row of the audience.

The whole, as well as certain mechanical inventions, were managed with dexterity and address. The lightning, being produced by the camera, was tame, and had not the brisk transient appearance of the lightning at the theatres, which is produced by rosin, or lycopodium powder, thrown through a light, which in Mr. P's utter darkness might easily have been concealed in a kind of dark lantern.

A plate of thin sheet iron, such as German stoves are made of, is an excellent instrument for producing the noise of thunder. It may be three or four feet long, and the usual width. When this plate is held between the finger and thumb by one corner, and suffered to hang at liberty, if the hand be then moved or shaken horizontally, so as to agitate the corner at right angles to the surface, a great variety of sounds will be produced; from the low rumbling swell of distant thunder, to the succession of loud explosive bursts of thunder from elevated clouds. This simple instrument is very manageable, so that the operator soon feels his power of producing whatever character of sound he may desire; and notwithstanding this description may seem extravagant, whoever tries it for the first time will be surprised at the resemblance. If the plate be too small, the sound will be short, acute, and metallic.

We may remark also, that the magic lantern, by new contrived sliders and machinery, may be applied to important uses, by employing it with such figures as will explain the general principles of optics, astronomy, botany, &c.

The experiment mentioned by Ferguson, with a concave mirror, reflecting into the air the appearance of fire, &c. into a focal point, (founded on a general principle of concave reflectors,) is productive of many agreeable deceptions, and which exhibited with art and an air of mystery, has been very successfully employed.

The phantasmascope of Walker is similar to the phantasmagoria. It is an optical machine, which presents a door that opens itself. The apparatus is so contrived, that, on opening the door, a phantom makes its appearance, having all the colours of a picture, which approaches the spectator. Various figures may be accurately represented.

We will not enlarge on this subject, although many other instances of tricks, performed by means of fire, &c. might be noticed. We will merely remark:

1. For the performance of these exhibitions, the ancient, as well as the modern jugglers, of all descriptions, employed, and were acquainted with sundry mixtures, and compositions, by the use of which, they deceived the people; and some pretended to possess supernatural agencies. Of these compositions, with many of which we are unacquainted, we have enumerated some, and their effects. That of producing a callosity of the skin, &c. by means of acids, is an example.

2. That they possessed, as a trade or profession, the arts of deception. Not only by the use of chemical preparations, but by other means, they pretended to work miracles in the dark ages of science. However degraded these persons may seem, they yield in vice to another class, who practised the art of poisoning, and who kept it so profound a secret, that few then understood the effect of the now common, vegetable, and mineral poisons. Who could have been more infamous than the celebrated female poisoner, Tophania?