[25] Whoever walked the streets of Rome, at night, without a lantern, was under the necessity of creeping home in perfect darkness, and in great danger, like Alexis, in Athenæus. Antioch, Rome, and a few other cities had public lanterns in streets which were most frequented. Libanus, who lived in the beginning of the fourth century, in praising his native city, Antioch, says, that "the light of the sun is succeeded by other lights, which are far superior to the lamps lighted by the Egyptians on the festival of Minerva of Sais. The night differs from the day only in the appearance of the light. With regard to labour and employment, every thing goes on well. Some work continually; but others laugh and amuse themselves with singing." In another passage, in the oration to Ellibichus, the same author tells us, that the ropes from which the lamps that ornamented the city were suspended, had been cut by some riotous soldiers, not far from a bath. "Proceeding," says he "to a bath, not far off, they cut, with their swords, the ropes, from which were suspended the lamps that afforded light in the night-time, to show that the ornaments of the city ought to give way to them." Jerome also makes it appear, that Antioch was lighted with lamps; for, he remarks, that, in an altercation between a Luciferan and an Orthodox, an adherent to the schismatic Lucifer disputed in the street with a true believer, till the streets were lighted, when the listening crowd departed, and that they spat in each other's face, and retired. Edessa, in Syria, was lighted in the fifth century, and the governor of that city ordered, that a part of the oil, which was before given to the churches and monasteries, should be burnt in the streets. While illuminations were considered emblematical of public rejoicing, the reverse was considered a token of public sorrow; to denote which, on occasions of great misfortune, it was customary not to light the streets. Valerius quotes a passage of Libanius in proof of this assertion, where it is said, that the people of Antioch, in order to mitigate the anger of the emperor, bethought themselves of lighting either no lamps, or a very small number. In 1588, Paris was lighted up with falots, or vases filled with pitch, rosin, and other combustibles. The Abbé Laudati let out torches and lanterns in Paris, in 1662.
[26] In the Archives des Découvertes, &c. several new lamps are described, as follows: A lamp, invented by count Rumford noticed by him in a memoir on the light of lamps, and the means of increasing it; a new lamp with a double current of air, by Lenormand; star lamp by Bordier; reverberatory lamp for towns, &c. by de Thirville and Bordier; a modified thermo-lamp by Winsor; a new lamp by Baswell; the economical lamp of inflammable gas, by Murdoc, and economical lamp by Lambertin; the cupola lamp by Vivien; new lamp with a porcelain reflector by L'Ange; the hydrodynamic and chemical lamp, by L'Ange; the portable lamp by count Rumford; horizontal reflectors, with parabolic surfaces in revolving, and parabolic reflectors, simple and double, by Argand and Bordier Marcet; improved lamp, by Marcet; thermo-lamp by Sobolewsky and Horrer; watch lamp by Dumouceau; various lamps, with carburetted hydrogen; the polyflame lamp, of Rumford; the curved lamp by Connain; the enamellers' lamp, and hydropneumatic lamp by Tilley, &c. Davy's safety lamp is described in Brande's Chemistry, and in Ure's Chemical Dictionary. See Aphlogistic lamp.
[27] A solution of muriate of copper gives a green, of sulphate of copper and muriate of soda, a light green; of sulphate of copper, and ammonia in excess, a deep blue; a decoction of cochineal, or of brazil wood, and a solution of tin, a deep red or scarlet, &c. These solutions may be used for that purpose.
[28] Having mentioned in this article, the use of candles for illumination, it may not be improper to observe, that they were also employed for cooking, as will appear from the following incident. In 1172, Henry II, of France, collected together the feigners of Languedoc, in order to mediate a peace between the count of Toulouse, and the king of Arragon, at which Guillaume Gros de Martel gave a sumptuous dinner, the viands being all cooked by the flame of wax tapers!
[29] In the Archives des Découvertes et des Inventiones Nouvelles, are several new inventions and improvements, relative to fire arms, among which are the following: New fire arms, invented by Pauly, which are said to carry a ball double the distance of ordinary muskets, and to possess other advantages; for a particular account of which, the reader is referred to the Bulletin de la Société d'Encouragement, No. 99; another kind, by MM. Pauly and Prelat, which primes itself, &c. and goes off by percussion; an improvement in guns by using platina bushing, &c. by Lepage, with the use of priming, composed of powder made of chlorate of potassa in lieu of saltpetre; the improvement of Regnier in guns; improvement in the use of platina for guns, to be used with the oxymuriated powder, by Debourbet; a gun which fires fourteen times in succession without new loading, by M. Henri; an improved carabine, which is discharged by percussion, by M. Gosset, &c.
[30] Since 1792, musket-balls are seven-twelfths of an inch in diameter, and twenty go to the pound instead of eighteen. In the British service, eleven bullets to the pound are used for the proof of muskets, and fourteen in the pound, or twenty-nine in two pounds, for service; seventeen for the proof of carbines, and twenty for service; and twenty-eight in the pound, for the proof of pistols, and thirty four for service. The diameter of musket-bullets differs but one-fiftieth part from that of the musket bore; for if the shot but just rolls into the barrel, it is sufficient.
The diameter of any bullet is found, by dividing 1.6706 by the cube root of the number, which shows how many of them make a pound, or it may be done in a shorter way. From the logarithm .2228756 of 1.6706, subtract continually the third part of the logarithm of the number of bullets in the pound, and the difference will be the logarithm of the diameter required. Thus the diameter of a bullet, whereof twelve weigh a pound, is found by subtracting .3597270, a third part of the logarithm of 12, from the given logarithm .2228756; or, when the logarithm is less than the former, a unit must be added, so as to have 1.2228756, and the difference .8631486 will be the logarithm of the diameter sought, which is .7297 inches; observing that the number found will always be a decimal, when the logarithm, which is to be subtracted is greater than that of the pound; because the divisor is greater than the dividend in this case.
Hence, from the specific gravity of lead, the diameter of any bullet may be found from its given weight: for, since a cube foot weighs 11325 ounces, and 678 is to 355, as the cube 1728 of a foot, or 12 inches, is the content of the sphere; which therefore is, 5929.7 is to 16 ounces, or a pound, as the cube 1728 is to the cube of the diameter of a sphere which weighs a pound; which cube therefore is 4.66263, and its root 1.6706 inches, the diameter sought.
[31] A term used in the French Navy, to signify a wooden case or box, in which cartridges are brought out of the powder-magazine for the purpose of serving the guns; also a spoon or ladle, made of copper, and fixed to a long pole, which serves to convey gunpowder into a piece of ordnance.
[32] If sugar of lead cannot be had, and a substitute is required which in fact is the same, we may dissolve white lead in vinegar, until the latter is saturated. This may be used with water in the same manner, using, however, more of it as it is in solution.
[33] Lee's adventure, just related, brings to mind another, by a man of same name, not, however, with a submarine torpedo, or any thing of that kind; but with a sublunar aerostatic vessel, made about two or three years ago, at Camden, opposite Philadelphia. This was a balloon of an oblong shape, intended to float in the air like a ship on water, and furnished with oars or wings. It was filled with hydrogen gas. The object was to direct it, (a desideratum in aerostation), like a vessel on water; but the aeronaut, having arose in his car to the height of a lombardy poplar, which came in contact with it, and judging a retreat was preferable, leaped on a limb, where he had the misfortune to be caught by the seat of his pantaloons, and appeared, as it were, suspended between heaven and earth, to the no small diversion of thousands of spectators. The balloon ascended to some height, and then turned, throwing out his sand bags, &c. which, in the city, were taken for the unfortunate aeronaut, and produced, of course, a contrary feeling. Lee called on me the next day, and, in explanation of the cause, observed, that, when he ascended to the height mentioned, he found the centre of gravity was shifting, and thought it prudent not to venture. I observed, that it was well he changed his gravity, but was sorry to find, that he had transferred his centre a posteriori.
[34] A friend, who was a prisoner on board of Hardy's ship, very facetiously observed, such was the dread of torpedoes by the British, that they were literally afraid of eating a potato, lest it should contain a torpedo!
[35] We are informed, that some rockets, which were made at the U. S. Arsenal at Troy, were charged with the usual rocket composition, and a small portion of quicklime, in consequence of which their power was greatly augmented; a useful hint for their improvement.
[36] Star composition:—meal-powder 5 parts, saltpetre 16 parts, sulphur 8 parts, antimony 2 parts.
[37] Four inches more likely.
[38] General Lallemand (Treatise on Artillery, vol. i, p. 26,) observes, that the Congreve rocket is thirty inches in length, and three and a half inches in diameter; that a part of its charge consists of fire stone and small grenades; that their range is equal to a long gun, but their direction is very uncertain; so much so as to render them of little service, except to set fire to objects with extensive surfaces; and that they will not pierce through solid buildings, and in battle are at best only fit to frighten horses.
[39] In a note to Gibbon, page 283, we read, "The naphtha, the oleum incendiarum of the history of Jerusalem (Gest. Dei per Francos, p. 1167,) the oriental fountain of James de Vitry (l. iii, c. 84,) is introduced on slight evidence and strong probability." The name by which Cinnamus call the Greek fire, corresponds with the locality where naphtha was found, between the Tigris and the Caspian sea. Pliny (Hist. Natur. ii, 109,) says, it was subservient to the revenge of Medea, and according to the etymology, naphtha was signified.
[40] The Fougasses and Camouflets, used in mining, are employed for different purposes. The fougasses are small mines, whose line of resistance is only six to six and two-thirds feet. They are used to defend large posts. Bomb fougasses are nothing more than fougasses, charged with bombs containing powder. To estimate the effects of bomb fougasses, artillerists have ascertained the exact quantity of powder contained in each kind of bomb. A bomb of eight and a half inches weighs forty-six and a half pounds; it requires four and a half pounds of powder to fill it; but one pound will burst it. The eighteen inch bomb, or cominage, weighs nearly five hundred and seventy-one pounds, and contains forty pounds of powder Thirteen pounds of powder will burst it. The camouflet is a small fougasse, made to act against the enemy's mines, to suffocate and poison their branch. The camouflet is also used to act against the sides of the crater of a mine that has been sprung. See Science of War and Fortification, vol. 2d, p. 286.
[41] The gramme is the French unit of weight, and is equal to the weight of a cubic centimetre of pure water; it weighs 18.84 grains, French. The kilogramme is equal to 1000 grammes. (2 lbs., 5 drachma, 49 grains, French.)
[42] Among other inventions, by this philosopher, such as the detection of the adulteration of the crown of Hiero, mentioned by Vitruvius, the cachleon or Archimedes' screw, the Helix for launching large ships, the Trispaston for drawing immense weights, Pneumatic and Hydrostatic engines, sphere, which exhibited the celestial motions;—there are two in particular, which relate to the defence of Syracuse, as well as the destruction of the enemy. Besides his burning mirrors, Polybius, Livy, and Plutarch assert, that his inventions for defence consisted of Tormenta, Balistæ, Catapults, Sagittarii, Scorpions, Cranes, &c. Archimedes died in the 143d Olympiad, 210 years before the birth of Christ.
[43] Certain plants, we have said, are made use of for this purpose. Botanists have certain rules for distinguishing poisonous plants, from those which are innocent. Professor Eaton (Manual of Botany, &c. p. 17) observes, that plants with five stamens and one pistil, with a dull coloured lurid corol, and of a nauseating sickly smell, are always poisonous; as tobacco, thorn-apple, henbane, night-shade. The degree of poisonous property diminished, when the flower is brighter coloured, and the smell, less nauseous. He also observes, that umbelliferous plants of the aquatic kind, and of a nauseating scent, are always poisonous; as water-hemlock and cow-parsley. But if they grow in dry land, and their smell is pleasant, they are not poisonous; as fennel, dill, &c. Snap dragon, foxglove, and plants, generally, with labiate corols, and seeds in capsules, are poisonous, and also those plants which exude a milky juice when broken, unless they bear compound flowers; as milk-weed and dog-bane. It is understood, also, that plants having any appendage to the calyx or corol, and eight or more stamens, are generally poisonous.