121. Anthropologie der Naturvölker, I. 407. Compare Hehn, Culturpflanzen und Hausthiere, 2nd edit., p. 103.
122. Bergmann, Les peuples primitifs de la race de Jafète, Colmar 1853, pp. 42, 45, 52, 53 apud Renan, Hist. gén. d. langues sém., p. 39. It is interesting that the ancients explained the hard-bested name of the Pelasgians from this point of view, making Πελασγοί equivalent to πελαργοί = storks (Strabo, V. 313; Falconer, ed. Kramer, V. 2, § 4). Compare Pott, Etymologische Forschungen, 1836, II. 527.
123. Blau in the Zeitschrift d. D. M. G., 1858, II. 589.
124. Waitz, ibid. II. 349.
125. Gesenius, Thesaurus, p. 410. a.
126. Munk, Palästina, Germ. transl. by Levy, Leipzig 1871, p. 190.
127. Ebers, Aegypten und die Bücher Moses, I. 70.
128. See the passage in Schrader, Keilinschriften und das A. T., p. 64. 20.
129. See Böttcher, Ausführl. Lehrb. d. hebräischen Sprache, edited by Mühlau, p. 7, note.
130. Einleitung in das Studium der arab. Sprache, p. 19.
131. Compare the Hottentot national name Saan, from sâ ‘to rest,’ i.e. ‘the Settlers’ (F. Müller, Allgemeine Ethnographie, p. 75).
132. J.S. Müller, Semiten, Chamiten und Japheiten, &c, p. 257.
133. Lenormant, Études Accadiennes, pt. 3, I. 72.
134. Al-Nawawî (the Cairo edition of Muslim’s collection, with Commentary), V. 169.
135. Kitâb al-aġânî, XVI. 82 penult.
136. Burton’s First Footsteps in East Africa, London 1856, p. 174.
137. See al-Nâbiġâ, XXXI. v. 4 (Derenbourg).
138. On the Calendar of the Arabs before Moḥammed (in Zeitschrift der D. M. G., 1859, XIII. 161).
139. Sprachliches aus den Zeltlagern der syrischen Wüste, p. 32, note 21 (a reprint from Zeitschrift der D. M. G., 1868, XXII.).
140. A species of lyric poem or elegy.—Tr.
141. Saḳt al-zand (Bûlâḳ edition of 1286), II. 34. Yet Aġânî, I. 147. 20, in a poem of Nuṣeyb: wa lam ara matbûʿan aḍarra min-al-maṭari.
142. See an example in Zeitschrift der D. M. G., 1857, V. p. 100, l. 14.
143. Kitâb al-aġânî, XI. 126.
144. Ṣaḥâḥ, s.r. ṭrḳ.
145. Chunnas, ‘planet,’ i.e. Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Venus, or Mercury.—Tr.
146. Commentary on the Ḳorân (Fleischer’s edition), II. 397. 6.
147. Phaleg (ed. Frankfort), II. 124.
148. Yerach (pausal yârach), Gen. X. 26, 1 Chr. I. 20; elsewhere yerach denotes ‘month’ and yârêach ‘moon.’—Tr.
149. Ibn Dureyd, Kitâb al-ishtiḳâḳ, p. 99. 9.
150. Culturgeschichtliche Streifzüge auf dem Gebiete des Islams, Leipzig 1873, p. viii.
151. See Creuzer, Symbolik und Mythologie der alten Völker, 3rd ed., I. 38.
152. Welcker, Griechische Götterlehre, I. 169.
153. As the myth grows more and more into a religion, and the conception of a mighty god who excels all others becomes fixed, the production of thunder and rain, &c., is gradually transferred to this originally solar god (see also Max Müller, Chips, &c., I. 357 et seq.). The sharp division made above is therefore absolutely true only of the purely mythological stage. Conversely Indra and Varuṇa, originally figures belonging to the gloomy cloudy and rainy sky, which take the highest places in the Indian religion, are in the Vedic Hymns endowed with solar traits.
154. Those to whom the philosophical terms objective and subjective are not familiar must understand them respectively as impersonal or impartial, and personal or partial; the former being that which is outside the thinker’s personality, the latter that which is within him, and therefore often the reflected image of external things on his own mind.—Tr.
155. On the disappearance of individuality in direct proportion to antiquity, see Wilhelm von Humboldt, Ueber die Verschiedenheit des menschlichen Sprachbaues, Berlin 1836, p. 4. Lazarus appears to concede to the individual too much influence on the origin of speech; see Leben der Seele II. 115.
156. See the article ‘Das Epos’ in Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie, &c. 1868, V. 8, 10.
157. Nöldeke, Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Poesie der alten Araber, p. 185. 12.
158. Kitâb al-aġânî, VI. 137. 17.
159. Durrat al-ġauwâs (ed. Thorbecke), p. 178. 4.
160. Yâḳût, I. 934. 2.
161. Romance of ʿAntar, IV. 97. 2.
162. This connexion is found among the Polynesians: ‘The time-reckoning in all Polynesia conformed to the moon. They reckoned by nights,’ &c., Gerland, Anthropologie der Naturvölker. 71. Only the nights had names, the days had none, ibid., pp. 72. Both the chronology according to moons and the counting of days by nights are linguistically demonstrated of the Melanesian group. See the comparison in Gerland, ibid., pp. 616–619.
163. Laz. Geiger, Ursprung und Entwicklung der menschlichen Sprache und Vernunft, II. 270.
164. Die heiligen Schriften der Parsen, in German, II. xcviii. and III. xx.
165. God in History, II. 433–5.
166. De Bello Gallico, VI. 18: ‘Spatia omnis temporis non numero dierum, sed noctium finiunt; dies natales et mensium et annorum initia sic observant, ut noctem dies subsequatur.’
167. Germania, XI: ‘Nec dierum numerum, ut nos, sed noctium computant. Sic constituunt, sic condicunt: nox ducere diem videtur,’ in connexion with the public assemblies at the changes of the moon. The fact must not be overlooked that, according to Caesar, ibid. 22, the Germans ‘agriculturae non student, majorque pars victus eorum in lacte, caseo, carne consistit.’ See also, on this subject, Pictet, Les origines Indo-Européennes et les Aryas primitifs, II. 588.
168. And in ‘Se'nnight.’—Tr.
169. The identical English term ‘Leap year’ is another apposite example.—Tr.
170. See the Hungarian review, Magyar Nyelvőr, I. 26–28.
171. In Rawlinson’s History of Herodotus, App. to Book II. chap. VII. § 16–20 (ed. of 1862, vol. II. p. 282 et seq.).
172. Waitz, l. c. IV. 174.
173. See Karl Andree, Forschungsreisen, &c., II. 205.
174. Mommsen, History of Rome, I. 217 (ed. 1862), 230 (ed. 1868).
175. Welcker, Griechische Götterlehre, I. 555.
176. Sir Gardner Wilkinson, in Rawlinson’s Herodotus, ed. 1862, vol. II. p. 283, § 17.
177. Die quinäre und vigesimale Zählmethode, Halle 1867.
178. Waitz, l. c. II. p. 224, compared with Bastian, Geographische und ethnologische Bilder, Jena 1874, pp. 144, 155.
179. See on this J. Muir, Contributions to a Knowledge of the Vedic Theogon and Mythology (Journal of Royal Asiatic Society, N.S., 1864, I. pp. 54–58).
180. Max Müller, Lectures on the Science of Language, Second Series, p. 430.
181. Max Müller, Chips, &c., II. p. 65. Muir, l. c. p. 77 et seq.
182. This is connected with Müller’s view that ‘language must die before it can enter into a new stage of mythological life’ (Lectures on the Science of Language, Second Series, p. 426).
183. Lectures, &c., Second Series, p. 432.
184. Rawlinson, History of Herodotus, I. 211.
185. V. 3: ἀλλὰ γὰρ τοῦτο ἄπορόν σφι καὶ ἀμήχανον μή κοτε ἐγγένηται· εἰσὶ δὴ κατὰ τοῦτο ἀσθενέες.
186. The literature is clearly and concisely enumerated in G. Rawlinson’s essay On the Early History of the Athenians, §8-11 (Hist. of Herod., Bk. II. Essay II.). But it must be added that the idea of the learned author—‘The Attic castes, if they existed, belong to the very infancy of the nation, and had certainly passed into tribes long before the reign of Codrus’—does not agree with the historical sequence demanded by the connexion of the tribes with nomadic life and that of the caste with fixed tenure. In the very nature of the case the division into tribes is proper to nomadism, which knows of no systematic occupation with arts and trades, whereas the division into castes presupposes such an occupation with trades and arts as only a sedentary life renders possible. Therefore, between tribes and castes the priority will always have to be assigned to the former.
187. Spiegel, Ueber die eranische Stammesverfassung (Abhandlungen der kön. bair. Akad. d. W., 1855, Bd. VII.); Kasten und Stände in der arischen Vorzeit (Ausland, 1874, No. 36).
188. Die heiligen Schriften der Parsen, in German, III. vi.
189. Ibid. II. xiv.-xv.
190. Zeitschrift d. D. M. G. 1852, VI. 67 et seq.
191. God in History, II. 8.
192. Narrative of a Year’s Journey through Central and Eastern Arabia, I. 8.
193. See Welcker. Griechische Götterlehre, I. 551.
194. Zur hauranischen Alterthumskunde (Zeitschrift der D. M. G., 1861, XV. 444).
195. It should be noted that from Ibn Dureyd, Kitâb al-ishtiḳâḳ, p. 96. II, it is evidently possible that in such compounds the word ʿabd itself may belong to the idol; he writes wa-ʿabdu shamsin zaʿamû ṣanamun wa-ḳâla ḳaumun bal ʿaynu mâin maʿrufatun wa-hua ismun ḳadîmun: ‘ʿAbd Shams is in the opinion of some an idol, others say it is the name of a well-known spring of water: it is an old name.’
196. Tuch, Sinaitische Inschriften (Zeitschr. der D. M. G., 1849, III. 202).—Osiander, Vorislam. Religion der Araber (Zeitschr. der D. M. G., 1853. VII. 483).
197. Tâj-al-ʿarûs, II. 209.
198. Schlottmann, Die Inschrift Eshmunazar’s, Halle 1868, p. 84.
199. Yâḳût, IV. 85. See al-Jawâlîḳî’s Livre des locutions vicieuses (ed. Derenbourg in Morgenländ. Forschungen), p. 153.
200. Zur vergleichenden Religionsgeschichte, 1 Art. (Ausland 1872), p. 4. See also 1871, p. 1159.
201. Compare also the Himyaric proper name Ben Sîn (Halévy, Études sabéennes [Journal Asiat. 1874, II. 543]).
202. Lenormant, Les premières civilisations, II. 158.
203. Schrader, Die Höllenfahrt der Istar, p. 45.
204. Egypt’s Place in Universal History, IV. 342.
205. In his essay on the Egyptian antiquities at the Great Exhibition of 1867 at Paris.
206. I must explain that the preceding four sections were already written down, before I could get a sight of Kuhn’s essay, which appeared later.
207. Ueber Entwickelungsstufen der Mythenbildung, Berlin 1874; from the Abhandlungen der königl. Akademie d. Wiss. zu Berlin (phil.-hist. Klasse), 1873, pp. 123–137.
208. Rude Stone Monuments in all Countries, their Ages and Uses, London 1872, pp. 9 et seq. and 28.
209. The same is stated of some American tribes by Sir J. Lubbock, The Origin of Civilisation, ed. 3, 1875, pp. 273, 306, et seq.
210. Georg Schweinfurth, The Heart of Africa, I. p. 200.
211. But we cannot on this account characterise the Semites generally by the assertions, ‘The Semites are in general a pastoral people,’ ‘the Semites live in tents,’ as Friedrich von Hellwald does in his Culturgeschichte in ihrer natürlichen Entwickelung, p. 134. A glance at the sedentary Phenicians and the settled Semites of Mesopotamia shows at once the important exceptions. It must also not be overlooked that agriculture was in practice to no small extent among the Phenicians; even the Romans call a kind of threshing machine, the ‘Punic:’ Varro, De re rustica, I. 52; cf. Lowth, De sacra poesi Hebraeorum, Oxford 1821, Prael. VII. p. 62. The commerce with Egypt, which von Hellwald brings into prominence, is no sufficient reason why the favourite characterisation of the Semites does not apply to these nations. The Hebrews continued their nomadic life for a long time after they had made intimate acquaintance with Egypt; and the nomadic Arabs were not materially influenced by communication with sedentary nations.
212. Given by Josephus Langius, Florilegii magni seu Polyantheae ... libri XXIII., Lugduni 1681, I. 120, as by Aristophanes; but the author and the translator have searched the works and fragments of Aristophanes in vain.
213. Ovid also begins with the life of the fields; his golden age is distinguished from the others only in this, that:
and
214. History of Herodotus, tr. G. Rawlinson, IV. c. 46, note 5.
215. Muslim’s Collection of Traditions (ed. of Cairo with commentary), I. 138; al-Jauharî, s.r. fdd. Cf. Dozy, Geschichte der Mauren in Spanien, Leipzig 1874, I. 17.
216. Al-Buchârî, Recueil des Traditions Musulmans (ed. Krehl), II. 385 (LX. No. 29).
217. Al-Buchârî, Recueil &c., II. 74 (XL I. No. 20).
218. Al-Buchârî, Recueil &c. p. 67, No. 2. It is true these expressions might be balanced by a few somewhat opposite in character, such as that which declares that in the judgment of the Prophet the best business is Trade; according to other reporters Manufacture; according to others (whose version is regarded as the correct one) Agriculture (see al-Nawawî on Muslim’s Collection of Traditions, IV. 32). Still such sentences, even when confirmed by others, cannot weaken the force of those cited in the text. I must also mention in conclusion that al Shaʿrânî in his Book of the Balance (Kitâb al-mîzân, Cairo [Castelli], 1279, II. 68) mentions this question as a point of difference among the canonical authorities of Islamic theology: the school of al-Shâfeʿî regards trade as the noblest occupation, whilst the three other Imâms (Abû Ḥanîfâ, Mâlik b. Anas, and Aḥmed b. Ḥanbal) declare for field-labour and manufactures.
219. See Alfred von Kremer, Culturgeschichte des Orients unter den Khalifen, I. 16.
220. Von Kremer, ibid. pp. 71, 77; Culturgeschichtlichte Streifzüge, p. xi.
221. Ibn ʿAbdi Rabbihi, Kitâb al-ʿiḳd al-ferîd, ed. Bûlâḳ 1293 A.H., vol. III. p. 347.
222. Futuh as-Shâm, being an account of the Moslem conquests in Syria, ed. Nassau Lees, Calcutta 1854, I. 9 et seq.
223. This satirical reproach of the Bedâwî often occurs, e.g. sometimes in the Romance of ʿAntar in passages which are not accessible to me at the present moment. We meet with it also in the Persian king Yezdegird’s satire on the Arabs (Chroniques de Tabari, transl. by Zotenberg, III. 387). Later also, in Ibn Baṭûṭâ, Voyages, III. 282, where the Indian Prince describes his Beduin brother-in-law Seif al-Dîn Ġada, who had at first charmed him, but afterwards been disgraced for his want of manners, by the epithet mûsh châr, i.e. ‘field-rat-eater;’ ‘for,’ adds the traveller, ‘the Arabs of the Desert eat field-rats.’ See also Aġânî, III. 33, l. 4 from below, where Bashshâr b. Burd accuses a Bedâwî of hunting mice (ṣeydu faʿrin).
224. Prolégomènes, trad. par de Slane, pp. 255–273.
225. A collection of similar poetical passages is to be found in Freytag’s Commentary on the amâsâ, pp. 601 and 606.
226. Ḥamâsâ, Text, p. 340, 3 infr.
227. E.g. Yâḳûṭ, Geograph. Dict., II. 118. s.v. gamal.
228. al-Nâbiġâ, III. 2.
229. Journal Asiatique, 1868, II. 378.
230. Just as can be said of another passage closely connected with the above, Is. XL. 26. On the contrary, especially in the latter passage, the host of stars is compared to a war-host, ṣâbhâ; and the idea that each star is a valiant warrior is also not strange to Arabic poetry (e.g. Ḥamâsâ, p. 36, l. 5, comp. Num. XXIV. 17); for the conception of ṣebâ hash-shamayîm ‘host or army of heaven,’ has taken as firm root among the Arabs as among the Hebrews. ‘For thou art the Sun,’ says al-Nâbiġâ (VIII. 10) to king Noʿmân, ‘and the other kings are stars; when the former rises, not a single star of these latter are any longer visible.’ With this is connected the expression juyûsh al-ẓalâm ‘the armies of darkness’ (Romance of ʿAntar, XVIII. 8. 6, XXV. 60. 69). In the last passage, indeed, it stands in parallelism with ʿasâkir al-ḍiʾâ w-al-ibtisâm ‘armies of light and smiling,’ just as with the synonymous juyûsh al-ġeyhab (ʿAntar, XV. 58. 11).
231. On this peculiarity of the poets of the towns an opinion of ʿAjjâj very much to the point occurs in the Kitâb al-aġânî, II. 18.
232. The Heart of Africa, I. 28.
233. Quer durch Afrika, I. 121.
234. Palgrave, Central and Eastern Arabia, I. 463.
235. De Sacrificio Kajin, p. 169, ed. Mangey, Oxford 1742. In another treatise Philo distinguishes two kinds of shepherds and two kinds of agriculturists, of which one kind is blameworthy, and the other praiseworthy. There is a distinction between ποιμήν and κηνοτροφός, and on the other hand between γῆς ἐργάτης (probably answering to the Hebrew ʿôbêd adâmâ), and γεωργός (probably intended to represent the Hebrew îsh adâmâ). See De Agricultura, p. 303 et seq.
236. Geographische und ethnologische Bilder, pp. 191–97.
237. Lettres persanes, Lettre CXXI.
238. See Herberstein, Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii, Vienna 1549, p. 61, where a Tatar formula of execration is said to be ‘ut eodem in loco perpetuo tamquam Christianus haereas.’
239. Travels in Arabia, ed. Ouseley, 1829, p. 381.
240. A notable illustration of this relation is presented by the Arabic proverb, ‘If you hear that the smith (of the caravan) is packing up in the evening, be sure that he will not go till the following morning’ (al-Meydânî, Bûlâḳ edition, I. 34). Notice the occasion of the origin of this proverb, in the commentary on the passage.
241. Personal Narrative of Pilgrimage to Mecca and Medina, 2nd ed. 1857, I. 117.
242. Burton’s First Footsteps in Eastern Africa, p. 240.
243. Kant’s Kleinere Schriften zur Logik und Metaphysik, herausgegeben von Kirchmann, II. 4 (Philosoph. Bibliothek, Hermann, Bd. XXXIII.).