[841] Anglo-Saxon weotuma: Ælfred, Ecc. Laws, 12, 29: Schmid, Gesetze, 58, 62. Schroeder uses the term Muntschatz, which, however, is only found in Friesic law: Sohm, Eheschliessung, 33, note. Some form of weotuma appears in many dialects: Old German widemo, giving rise to Witthum; Longobardian meta; Burgundian wittemon; Friesic wetma (wethma, weetma); Alamannian widem: Schroeder Güterrecht, I, 46, 47, 24; Schmid, op. cit., 675; Grimm, Rechtsalterthümer, 422-24; Young, in Essays, 165; Weinhold, Deutsche Frauen, I, 320, note, 336, passim; Schroeder, Rechtsgeschichte, 291, note, 161. Cf. Eckhardt, "Das Witthum," in Zeitsch. für deutsches Recht, X, 437 ff.; Hellwald, Die mensch. Familie, 315, 316; Smith, La famille chez les Burgondes, 5 ff.

[842] On the tutelage of woman in early Germanic law see Grimm, Rechtsalterthümer, 447 ff., 465; Sohm, Eheschliessung, 22, 50 ff.; Weinhold, Deutsche Frauen, I, 193 ff.; II, 27; Gide, Étude sur la cond. privée de la femme, 280 ff., 339; Rive, Vormundschaft, I, 218 ff.; Kraut, Vormundschaft, I, 171-86; Leber, Des coutumes, 22 ff.; Reinsch, Stellung und Leben der deutschen Frau, 4 ff.; Habicht, Altd. Verlobung, 8 ff., 68; Friedberg, Eheschliessung, 17 ff., passim; Schroeder, Güterrecht, I, 1 ff.; idem, Rechtsgeschichte, 64 ff., passim; Brunner, Rechtsgeschichte, I,75,89 ff.; Dargun, Mutterrecht und Raubehe, 23 ff.; Kohler, "Die Ehe mit und ohne Mundium," ZVR., VI, 321 ff.; Waitz, in Sitzungsberichte der preuss. Akademie, 1886, 375 ff.; Buckstaff, in Annals of Am. Acad., IV, 233 ff.; Stobbe, "Die Aufhebung der väterlichen Gewalt nach dem Recht des Mittelalters;" in Beiträge, 1-24, reviewing and criticising Kraut; Zoepfl, (R.), De tutela mulierum germanic. (Heidelberg, 1828); Emminghaus, De praecipuis germ. fem. (Jena, 1756); and Zoepfl (H.), Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte, III, 1-4. Young, "Anglo-Saxon Family Law," Essays, 148 ff., denies that patria potestas existed in German law; and a similar view is taken by Adams, Political Essays, 31 ff.; but Heusler, Institutionen, II, 275, takes the opposite view. Cf. Smith, La famille chez les Burgondes, 13 ff. Ficker, Untersuchungen zur Rechtsgeschichte, III, 401 ff., insists that the sex-tutelage (Geschlechtsvormundschaft) did not exist under Frank law.

[843] That the betrothal is a contract relative to the mund is stoutly maintained by Dahn, Das Weib in altgerm. Recht und Leben, 4 ff., who absolutely rejects wife-purchase, declaring such an idea to be "abominable and impossible" ("abscheulich und unmöglich"). This theory is also held by Kraut, Vormundschaft I, 171; Schroeder, Güterrecht, I, 27 ff., 38, 79; yet Schroeder, Rechtsgeschichte, 68, 291 ff., regards the German marriage as in form a purchase of the bride. Rive, Vormundschaft, I, 258 ff., passim, denies that the betrothal has any relation to the mund, and rejects entirely the view that the sale-marriage ever existed among the Germans. Habicht, Altdeutsche Verlobung, 8 ff., 12, admits that originally the mund was a "property right" and the wife a "thing," though in the earliest written sources she appears as Rechtssubject. Sohm, Eheschliessung, 22, regards the Witthum as the price of the mund; but in his Trauung und Verlobung, 15, 16, he drops this view and declares the betrothal to be a contract to "give the bride in marriage," or, more directly, a "Kauf der Jungfrau." Friedberg, Eheschliessung, 17, 18, appears to hold that it was the mund which was conveyed; but elsewhere he seems to favor the opposite view for the early period. See his Verlobung und Trauung, 7 ff.; Lehrbuch, 339; and Zur Geschichte, 362 ff. Pollock and Maitland, Hist. of Eng. Law, II, 362, declare that "whatever guesses we may make about a remoter age, the 'bride-sale,' of which Tacitus had heard, was evidently no sale of a chattel. It was very different from the sale of a slave girl; it was a sale of the mund, the protectorship over the woman." Gide, Étude sur la cond. privée de la femme, 196-215, 335 ff.; and Henry Adams, Historical Essays, 31, are decidedly of the same opinion. Buckstaff, in Annals of Am. Acad., IV, 234, doubts whether the German woman was ever looked upon as a chattel; and Opet, "Die erbrechtliche Stellung der Weiber in der Zeit des Volksrechts," in Gierke's Untersuchungen, XXV, takes a very favorable view of woman's right of inheritance.

On the other hand, the betrothal is regarded as originally an actual sale of the bride by Glasson, Hist. du droit et des inst. de l'Angleterre, I, 116, 117; Grosse, Die Formen der Familie, 223, 234; Siegel, Rechtsgeschichte, 450-52; Weinhold, Deutsche Frauen, I, 320; Heusler, Institutionen279 ff.; Loening, Geschichte des deutschen Kirchenrechts, II, 578; Hofmann, Ueber den Verlobungs- und Trauring, 849, 850; Leber, Des coutumes, 22 ff.; Lamprecht, Deutsche Geschichte, I, 104, 105; Sehling, Unterscheidung der Verlöbnisse, 32, 33; Grimm, Rechtsalterthümer, 420 ff.; Davoud-Oghlou, Législation des anciens Germains, I, xl-xli; Hellwald, Die mensch. Familie (apparently), 315-18; Dargun, Mutterrecht und Raubehe, 24 ff.; and especially Brunner, Rechtsgeschichte, I, 74 ff. Lehmann, Verlobung und Hochzeit, 7 ff., 78, 79, finds fainter traces of the sale-marriage among the Scandinavians than among the North Germans. Kohler, "Die Ehe mit und ohne Mundium," ZVR., VI, 321 ff., holds that marriage without mund on the part of the husband is the marriage of mother-right as opposed to the later Paternitätsrecht. See also Kohler, in ZVR., III, 354; and Waitz, "Ueber die Bedeutung des Mundium im deutschen Recht," Sitzungsberichte der preuss. Akad., 1886, 375 ff., for a discussion of the meaning and content of mund. In general, cf. Königswarter, Hist. de l'organisation de la famille, 121 ff.; Laboulaye, Condition des femmes, 112 ff.; Strack, Aus dem deutschen Familienleben, I, 17 ff.; Beauchet, Mariage dans le droit islandais, 3 ff., 12 ff.

[844] Habicht, Altdeutsche Verlobung, 9, note, 68, insists that there is no practical difference between the sale of the Vormundschaft, or protection, and the sale of the bride. See Ficker, Untersuchungen zur Rechtsgeschichte, III, 393-419, who rejects the view that marriage has the same origin and character among all the German peoples.

[845] Æthelb., 77: Schmid, Gesetze, 8, 9. Liebermann, 7, translates: "Wenn jemand eine Jungfrau zur Ehe kauft." Another provision of this code reads: "If a free man lies with a free man's wife, let him buy her with her wergeld, and procure with his own property another woman and bring her home to him (the wronged husband)": Æthelred, 31: Schmid, 4, 5. Cf. Liebermann's ed., 5. See Roeder, Die Familie bei den Angelsachsen, 15 ff., 24 ff.

[846] Brunner, Rechtsgeschichte, I, 74: "Wife-purchase is yet known to the earlier East Frisian sources, and it was still practiced in Denmark in the fifteenth century. "Und wie im Mittelalter die Redensart eine Frau zu kaufen vielfach verbreitet war, so bezeichnet in Holland der Volksmund noch jetzt die Braut als 'verkocht' (verkauft)."

[847] "Dotem non uxor marito, sed uxori maritus offert. Intersunt parentes ac propinqui; probant munera, non ad delicias muliebres quaesita, nec quibus nova nupta comatur, sed boves et frenatum equum et scutum cum framea gladioque. In haec munera uxor accipitur, atque invicem ipsa armorum aliquid viro affert. Hoc maximum vinculum, haec arcana sacra, hos conjugales deos arbitrantur."—Tacitus, Germania, c. 18.

[848] Schroeder, Güterrecht, I, 24 ff., 82, 83, has shown that this is probable; and such is the view of Grimm, Rechtsalt., 423, 424. Zoepfl, Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte, III, 4, believes Tacitus, "vermengt unverkennbar die verschiedenen Gaben, welche nach den Volksrechten des folgenden Zeitraumes unter der Bezeichnung als pretium und Morgengabe hervortreten, wovon die eine dem Vater oder Vormund der Frau, und die andere dieser selbst gebührte;" and the arms given by the bride to the bridegroom he identifies with the later well-known ceremony of "girding" the youth on reaching majority. Cf. on this passage also Heusler, Institutionen, II, 277; Thudicum, Der altdeutsche Staat, 148, 186; Laboulaye, Cond. des femmes, 113; Siegel, Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte, 452; Gide, Étude sur la cond. privée de la femme, 205 ff.; Ficker, Untersuchungen zur Rechtsgeschichte, III, 416-19, 394, believes Tacitus here describes correctly the Vidumsehe, the marriage in which the Vidum or price came to the woman herself.

[849] Schroeder, Güterrecht, I, 50; idem, Rechtsgeschichte, 292; Sohm, Trauung und Verlobung, 15; Laboulaye, op. cit., 113.

[850] Æthelb., 77; Thorpe, Ancient Laws, 22, 23, and n. 3; Schmid, Gesetze, 8, 9. Liebermann, 7, renders the first part of this passage: "Wenn jemand eine Jungfrau [zur Ehe] kauft, sei sie durch [Braut] Kaufgeld [giltig] erkauft, falls das [Rechtsgeschäft] untrügerisch ist." Cf. Poeniten. Theod., XVI, 29; Thorpe, II, 11, or Poeniten. Theod., II, xii, § 34, in Wasserschleben's Bussordnungen, 216; with Confess. Ecgb., § 20: Thorpe, II, 147; or the same in Wasserschleben, 309. See also Schroeder, Güterrecht, I, 51 n. 9.

[851] Æthelb., 82, 83; Thorpe, I, 24, 25; Liebermann, 8; cf. Schroeder, op. cit., 51 n. 10.

[852] Opet, Die erbrechtliche Stellung der Weiber in der Zeit der Volksrechte, 82 ff. This monograph may be compared with that of Amira, Erbenfolge und Verwandtschaftsgliederung nach dem altniederdeutschen Rechte, 83, 84. Roeder, Die Familie bei den Angelsachsen, 15 ff., takes a conservative position. In general on old English marriage see Phillips, Geschichte des angelsächs. Rechts, 129-33; Davoud-Oghlou, II, 355-60; Young, in Essays, 163 ff.; Friedberg, Eheschliessung, 33 ff.; Lingard, Anglo-Saxon Church (2d ed.), I, 6 ff.; Traill, Social England, I, 215, 216; Gide, Étude sur la cond. privée de la femme, 237, 196 ff.; Pollock and Maitland, Hist. of Eng. Law, II, 362 ff.; Buckstaff, in Annals, IV, 233; Ludlow, in Dict. of Christ. Ant., I, 203, 143. There is also a good discussion by Glasson, Hist. du droit et des inst. de l'Angleterre, I, 104-33; an account of the Anglo-Saxon bride in Grupen, De uxore theotisca, 221-55; interesting details in Thrupp, The Anglo-Saxon Home, 19-76; Wright, Hist. of Doms. Manners and Sentiments, 53-56; Turner, Hist. of Manners and Landed Property of Anglo-Saxons, 108, 113-15; and Jeaffreson, Brides and Bridals, I, 32-45, who gives an interesting discussion regarding the Anglo-Saxon woman, as a chattel subject to sale, even in the historical period. "To these ancient arrangements for the transference of women from their fathers to their matrimonial suitors, and for protecting the property in them against nefarious aggressors," he declares, "must be referred the barbarous spirit in which the law still persists in regarding a certain class of atrocious outrages on morality as mere infringements of private right. We reflect with astonishment on the conduct of our distant progenitors, who legalized traffic in womankind, but we persevere, so far as law is concerned, in dealing with the seducer as though his offence were nothing graver than a violation of personal privileges, for which a payment of money to one of the injured persons is the appropriate penalty" (I, 42, 43).

[853] An exhaustive study of these laws is, of course, not attempted. They are thoroughly exploited in the works of Sohm, Brunner, Schroeder, Friedberg, Dargun, and others.

[854] "Legati offerentes solidum et denarium, ut mos erat Francorum, eam partibus Chlodovei sponsant: placitum ad praesens petentes, ut ipsam ad conjugium traderet Chlodoveo."—Fredegarius, Greg. Turon. hist. epit., c. xviii: in Guadet and Taranne's ed., IV, 172, 173; or in Giesebrecht's trans., II, 273-75. Compare Sohm, Eheschliessung, 32 n. 21; Schroeder, Güterrecht, I, 55 n. 3, and authorities cited; Meril, Des formes, 30; Leber, Des Coutumes, 24; Weinhold, Deutsche Frauen, I, 323; Friedberg, Eheschliessung, 19 n. 7. The price of a maid is not fixed in the lex salica; but in c. 44 the price of a widow is given (Behrend, 58); and elsewhere the woman's mund is fixed at 62¹⁄₂ solidi. Ficker, Untersuchungen zur Rechtsgeschichte, III, 400, 401, regards the arrha, not as a survival of the bride-price, but as a symbol of mutual troth.

[855] Sohm, op. cit., 29 n. 15; Friedberg, Eheschliessung, 19. Cf., however, Weinhold, op. cit., I, 323, who says that wife-purchase has disappeared from the Bavarian and Alamannian laws. See Pertz and Brunner's ed., Mon. germ. hist.: legum, III, 183-496 (Leges baiuwariorum), 1-182 (Leges alamannorum).

[856] Puella empta appears in the Pactus alamannorum, 3, 29. Cf. Schroeder, Güterrecht, I, 17 ff.; Weinhold, op. cit., I, 323; Friedberg, op. cit., 19.

[857] "Lito regis liceat uxorem emere, ubicunqui voluerit. Sed non liceat ullam foeminam vendere."—Lex saxonum, tit. 18: Walter, Corpus juris germ., I, 389. Tit. 6 fixes the price at 300 solidi: Walter, I, 386.

[858] Lex wisigoth., lib. iii, tit. i, 2: Walter, Corpus juris germ., I, 466; Ludlow, in Dict. Christ. Ant., I, 203. The bride-money is here called pretium, elsewhere the betrothal is styled mercatio: Brunner, Rechtsgeschichte, I, 74 n. 23. The whole of liber iii, Walter, I, 465-91, relates to marriage and allied matters.

[859] Lex burgundionum, tits. 12, 34, 51, 52, 66, 69: Walter, I, 311, 320, 329, 330, 335, 336; for the Lombards, Edictum Rotharis, c. 178 ff.: Walter, I, 710 ff., especially c. 182, which contains the form of betrothal. Compare this with the later ritual given by Canciani, II, 476, summarized by Weinhold, I, 341; Ludlow, in Dict. Christ. Ant., I, 203. See also Liutprandi leges, lib. ii, c. 7 ff., 88, 93, 99, 102, 106, 112, 115, 119, etc.: Walter, I, 759 ff.

[860] Lehmann, Verlobung und Hochzeit, 1 ff., 78, 79; Weinhold, Altdeutsches Leben, 240. Schroeder, Rechtsgeschichte, 287, denies that there are any sure traces of wife-purchase in northern law.

[861] Schroeder, op. cit., 292; Brunner, Rechtsgeschichte, 75; Weinhold, Deutsche Frauen, I, 321 ff.; Sohm, Eheschliessung, 23, 24, who thinks the fixing of a legal price of great importance, the purchase of a maid being thus distinguished from that of a thing. The bride-money is thus the nominal price of an unschätzbares object; it admits no bargaining; but the explanation of Habicht, Altdeutsche Verlobung, 12, 13, given in the text, is simpler and more probable. Schroeder, Güterrecht, I, 11 ff., in connection with each code, gives a mass of details relative to the violation of the mund by illegal marriage and the amount of the composition in each case. Cf. Laboulaye, Cond. des femmes, 113; Young, in Essays, 166; and Æthelberht, 31; Thorpe, I, 11, where the wergeld is mentioned.

[862] Latin arrha, arra, or arrhabo; Greek ἀρῥᾰβων; Lombard launichild, launegild, perhaps the same as the German Lohngeld. It means "earnest money," and was used by the Romans in connection with bargains; also in general with other real contracts. Cf. Smith, Dict. Greek and Roman Ant., I, 193; Bingham, Orig. Ecc., VII, 311; Schroeder, Rechtsgeschichte, 290, 295; idem, Güterrecht, I, 39, 55 ff.; Heusler, Institutionen, I, 80 ff.; Sohm, Eheschliessung, 28; Zoepfl, Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte, III, 8 ff., 12-14; Davoud-Oghlou, II, 59 n. 3; Ludlow, in Dict. Christ. Ant., I, 142-44. "Subarrare" is used in the ritual of the Greek church for disposing in marriage: see the ritual in Burn, Parish Registers, 141, 142.

[863] Sohm, Eheschliessung, 28-32, maintains this view against Schroeder, Güterrecht, I, 39, 40, 55, and others, who regard the arrha as a symbolical payment—a Scheinpreis or symbolischer Muntschatz. Cf. Friedberg, Eheschliessung, 19; "Zur Gesch. der Eheschliessung," ZKR., I, 364 ff.

[864] Sohm, op. cit., 33.

[865] Ibid.

[866] Ibid., 34. But Friedberg, Verlobung und Trauung, 8-10, insists on the long survival of the sale-contract.

[867] Ine, 31: Liebermann, Gesetze, 103. The phrase "and sio (seo) gyft (gift) forth ne cume" was rendered by Schroeder, Güterrecht, I, 51 n. 8, followed by Schmid, Gesetze, 34, 35, note, "if the purchase price be not paid"—a manifest error. Cf. Thorpe, Ancient Laws, I, 123.

[868] Ælfred, 18: Liebermann, Gesetze, 58-61. Cf. Thorpe, op. cit., I,73; Schmid, op. cit., 81, 83; Young, in Essays, 170.

[869] Ælfred, Ecc. Laws, 12: Thorpe, op. cit., I, 47. But Ælfred, op. cit., 29, seems to show that the older practice of payment to the father also existed: Thorpe, I, 52.

[870] The German wette and Anglo-Saxon wed are from the same root as beweddung.

[871] Sohm, Eheschliessung, 30, 31, 317, note.

[872] Ibid., 34, 35; Schroeder, Rechtsgeschichte, 293, 294.

[873] On the oath and Handschlag, see Sohm, op. cit., 47-50; on hand-fasting, Friedberg, Eheschliessung, 39 ff.

[874] On the morning-gift and dower see Heusler, Institutionen, II, 374-79; Thrupp, The Anglo-Saxon Home, 60; Gundling, De emptione uxorum, dote et morgengaba (Helmstedt, 1821); Gengler, Die Morgengaba (Bamberg, 1843); Eckhardt, "Das Witthum," Zeitschrift für deutsches Recht, X, 437 ff.; Grupen, De uxore theotisca, 49-140; Brunner, "Die frankisch-romanische Dos," Berliner Sitzungsber., XXIV, 545 ff.; Siegel, Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte, 455-57; Friedberg, "Zur Geschichte," ZKR., I, 365, 366; Spirgatis, Verlobung und Vermählung, 14; Schroeder, Güterrecht, I, 84-94 Zoepfl, Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte, III, 19-21.

[875] Schroeder, Güterrecht, I, 84-89.

[876] Ibid., 89-94.

[877] Glanville, Lib. VI, cap. 1; Phillips, Englische Reichs- und Rechtsgeschichte, II, 381. Compare Schroeder, op. cit., I, 89; II, 24-67, passim; Young, in Essays, 174; Laboulaye, Cond. des femmes, 117 ff., 124 ff.; Grimm, Rechtsalt., 441; and especially the monograph of Ashworth, Das Witthum (Dower) im eng. Recht, 9 ff., 18 ff.

[878] The meaning of "foster-laen" is uncertain. Schmid wrongly identifies it with the gyft of Ine, 31, and thinks it is the purchase price of the bride, that is, the weotuma: Gesetze, 34, 35, note. Thorpe regards it also as the purchase price paid to the family of the bride: Anc. Laws, I, 254, note. Schroeder, Güterrecht, I, 51 n. 13, believes it to be a provision for maintenance of the children. But Sohm renders it Weinkauf, "drink-money," and this is probably right. It is a form or application of the arrha, which is not now paid down, but, the contract being formal, is promised to the guardian. The arrha had customarily been spent in treating the guests: Eheschliessung, 30, 31, 317, note.

[879] "The language of this law seems to indicate that the legal endowment of the woman was one-third of the chattels, as in Ine, c. 57. By contract, however, before marriage, the husband might increase this to one-half."—Thorpe, I, 255, note.

[880] The bohr was the surety for fulfilment of the pledges.

[881] Thorpe, Anc. Laws, I, 255, 257, who classes this formulary with the laws of Eadmund. Schmid leaves the date undetermined, but thinks it may with as much probability be ascribed to Eadmund or Æthelstan as any other king: Gesetze, lxv, find Anhang, VI, 391, 393. Cf. Pollock and Maitland, Hist. Eng. Law, II, 367; and Dieckhoff, Kirchliche Trauung, 68 ff., who gives the text of this ritual.

[882] Sohm, Eheschliessung, 155, 100 n. 60, 317. Schroeder, Güterrecht, I, 53, 54, 96, reverses the meaning of these passages; and holds that the phrase "in case she choose his will" refers to the weotuma; and the phrase "if she live longer than he," to the morning-gift. But see Pollock and Maitland, II, 363, who render the last clause by "dower," and the first by "morning-gift."

[883] Brunner, Rechtsgeschichte, I, 74.

[884] This is the view of Sohm, Trauung und Verlobung, 38-57; Eheschliessung, 89, 90, 100, 59 ff.; as opposed to Friedberg, Verlobung and Trauung, 21 ff.; Eheschliessung, 21, 22, who thinks that the Trauung and Verlobung usually coincided. Cf. Schroeder, Rechtsgeschichte, 293; and Dieckhoff, Kirchliche Trauung, 67, who agrees with Sohm.

[885] For very interesting details relating to the German Trauung see Weinhold, Deutsche Frauen, II, 362-413. The old English betrothal ceremonies are best described by Roeder, Die Familie bei den Angelsachsen, 15 ff.

[886] Haas, in Weber's Indische Studien, V, 327-29, 391-99. Leist, Alt-arisches Jus Gentium, 133-71, gives a full discussion. Cf. above, chap. iv, pp. 171 ff.

[887] For the North Germans, Lehmann, Verlobung und Hochzeit, 80-88; Weinhold, Altnordisches Leben, 243-52; and in general, idem, Deutsche Frauen, 368 ff., 406 ff., 399. The third part of the ceremony is the Bettbeschreitung, or bedding of the newly married pair. Normally this takes place in the bridegroom's house, as according to northern custom: Lehmann, 85-87; but sometimes it appears to have taken place in the bride's home before the home-bringing: Weinhold, I, 399 ff. Cf. Friedberg, Eheschliessung, 22, 45, 64.

[888] The nuptials of widows, according to Salic law, were an exception. These were, nominally, solemnized in the mallum, or open court; but in practice this requirement may not always have been observed. The exception seems to be an outgrowth of the original restriction on second marriage: Tacitus, Germania, c. 19; Lex salica, 44, de reipus: Behrend, 57, 58. Cf. Sohm, Eheschliessung, 62-64 nn. 16, 17, 18; Schroeder, Güterrecht, I, 56. Friedberg, op. cit., 21; "Zur Geschichte," ZKR., I, 366, led astray by the statement of Grimm, Rechtsalt., 433, that Gemahl, "husband," is derived from mallum, thinks the nuptials were usually celebrated in open court. On the derivation see Sohm, op. cit., 62. In general on the marriage of widows see also Habicht, Altd. Verlobung, 16-23; Weinhold, Deutsche Frauen, II, 40 ff.; Schroeder, Rechtsgeschichte, 293, 296; Rive, Vormundschaft, I, 241; Zoepfl, Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte, III, 3, 10, 11; Weinhold, "Reipus und Achasius," in Haupt's Zeitschrift, VII, 539 ff.; Müllenhoff, "Glossary," in Waitz, Das alte Recht.

[889] Sohm, op. cit., 59-74.

[890] Grimm, op. cit., 142, 155, 156; Weinhold, Deutsche Frauen, I, 372. On the gifta cf. Schmid, Gesetze, 630; Friedberg, Eheschliessung, 21; Weinhold, Altnordisches Leben, 243 ff.

[891] Pollock and Maitland, Hist. of Eng. Law, II, 363. Thus Friedberg, op. cit., 21, 22, regards "Verlobung, Trauung, und Beilager" as acts each of which is an element in the "joining in marriage"—all three "eheschliessende Vorgänge." Cf. Sohm, Eheschliessung, 88, 89; Zoepfl, Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte, III, 5; Siegel, Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte, 455-57; Klein, Das Eheverlöbniss, 130 ff., who reviews the whole subject, citing authorities; and Hanauer, Coutumes matrimoniales, 255 ff.

[892] The views as to the legal "content" of the betrothal are summarized by Habicht, Altdeutsche Verlobung, 30. Rive, Vormundschaft, I, 243, holds that betrothal was not essential to a legal marriage; while Pardessus, Loi salique (Paris, 1843), regards it as legally requisite for a marriage, which, however, actually began only with the tradition of the bride.

[893] Sohm, Trauung und Verlobung, 139-47, passim; idem, Eheschliessung, 75-106.

[894] This is illustrated by the survival of names originally connected with the betrothal, but now with marriage itself: the English wed, wedding, wedded wife, etc.; the German Gemahl and Gemählin; the French époux and épouse, etc. Sohm, Eheschliessung, 78 n. 6, 56 nn. 74 and 75; idem, Trauung und Verlobung, 82, 83. But Habicht, Altdeutsche Verlobung, 65-67, believes this argument not conclusive.

[895] Poen. Theod., XVI: Thorpe, II, 11: "reddatur ei pecunia quam pro ipsa dedit, et tertia pars addatur;" also in Haddan and Stubbs, Councils, III, 201; and Wasserschleben, Bussordnungen, 216. The reading in Conf. Ecgb. is, "reddatur ei pecunia, quam pro illa dederat, et praeteria tertia pars hereditatis."—Thorpe, II, 149; Wasserschleben, 309. Cf. Ælf., 18: Thorpe, I, 73; Young, in Essays, 169.

[896] Ine, 31: Thorpe, I, 123. Compare Young, loc. cit., 168, 169.

[897] Sohm, Eheschliessung, 75-106; idem, Trauung und Verlobung, 1-37, passim; Young, loc. cit., 167-69.

[898] His Eheschliessung (1875) called forth the Verlobung und Trauung (1876) of Friedberg; also a critique by Meyer, in the Jenaer Lit. Ztg., Jan., 1876, 501 ff. Sohm defends his position in Trauung und Verlobung (1876), 15 ff.; in his Zur Trauungsfrage, 11 ff.; and in the Strassburger Festgabe für Thöl, 84, 98 n. 27. The views of Sohm and others are examined by Habicht, Altdeutsche Verlobung (1879), who concludes (75) that "Die Verlobung ist nicht Beginn der Ehe, aber die rechtliche Grundlage und nothwendige Voraussetzung derselben." The Trauung is "fulfilment of the betrothal" and "constitutes the beginning of the marriage." Lehmann, Verlobung und Hochzeit (1882), examines the problem from the standpoint of northern law, and reaches the analogous result (124, 125) that the "betrothal is a primary and independent, the nuptials (Hochzeit) a secondary and dependent, act for joining in marriage (Eheschliessungsact); the betrothal is the real Eheschliessungsact, the nuptials an Ehevollziehungsact." Sohm's view is adopted by Spirgatis, Verlobung und Vermählung, 4 f.; it is attacked by Scheurl, Kirchliches Eheschliessungsrecht, 35 ff.; it is regarded as extreme (übertrieben), though in spirit right, by Schubert, Die evangelische Trauung, 15 n. 2; Loening, Gesch. d. deut. Kirchenrechts, II, 581, 600 n. 1; both betrothal and tradition are essential to a German marriage according to Sehling, Unterscheidung der Verlöbnisse, 30; while Heusler holds that neither betrothal nor tradition, but the copula carnalis, is the essential point: Institutionen, II, 284. Cf. Klein, Das Eheverlöbniss, 130-34; Schroeder, Rechtsgeschichte, 296, 297, and authorities there cited; and Dieckhoff, Kirchliche Trauung, 66, 67, note, 97, who favors and summarizes Sohm's view.