Unremitting perseverance to the very end of our task, every day we live a day of positive action, and full employment of our powers in harmony with the laws of Nature and Man, are the conditions for our successful accomplishment of our revolutionary mission. Among Tsêng Kuo-fan's self-admonitory words on "Formation of Purpose" there are the following phrases: "To cast away the gifts of Heaven and live in sloth will bring upon me some evil catastrophe.... This I swear never to forget as long as I can still draw breath." That is to say, the formation of our purpose in life requires of us diligent and courageous devotion and the full exercise of our talents. The great writer and statesman also admonished himself on the subject of steadfastness of purpose, reproaching himself: "Again and again have you been delinquent in your duties and endeavors, and been swayed by material temptations; but no one has ever heard of your being unpunctual at mealtimes!" How is it, he meant, that if we can be regular in attending to our material wants we cannot be equally unfailing in the performance of our duties? The full accomplishment of any aim requires strong-minded formation and steadfastness of purpose. The true meaning of the words "let the superior man exert himself with the unfailing pertinacity of Nature" embraces this.
I have now completed my explanation of the fundamental principles involved in positive action. I wish to conclude by once again exhorting you all to firm faith in the Tsung-li's teaching: "From true knowledge action naturally proceeds." The meaning of the Revolution is as bright and spacious as the skies; and the clearer our comprehension of it the more vigor we shall put into the practice of it. Moreover, the methods we are to adopt and the mode of procedure we are to follow have been laid down for us in detail by Dr. Sun Wên. We have only to obey his directions, each of us playing a part for which his temperament, calling and knowledge fits him, relying upon his faculties for the discernment of moral and material good at every step in his bold and resolute execution of his duty to nation and people.
I wish to say another word on the subject of the knowledge from which as we have seen action proceeds; and what I have to say is: that just as action proceeds from knowledge, action in its turn engenders knowledge. Dr. Sun said: "The ability to know implies the ability to act." I would add the words: "without action one cannot attain to knowledge." For knowledge comes with experience, and apart from the broad and fundamental truths of revolutionary thought our knowledge need not necessarily be in the first place very rich. Though, therefore, we must of course do all we can to acquire knowledge for its own sake, we must at the same time seek it as one of the fruits of positive action. Any knowledge acquired in the course of study, research, or experience which we do not proceed to put to the test of practice in the field of actuality is not to be considered with certainty as worthy of being called true knowledge. So it is that in all our undertakings practice will yield us true knowledge, and action alone will give us the ability to extend and enrich our knowledge. Chu Hsi in his commentary on the Great Learning wrote: "By long application of our powers we one day reach a point whence we see the whole scheme of things spread out before us, we perceive the realities underlying phenomena, the relation of accident to essence, and the structure and workings of the human mind." This attainment can come only as the fruit of positive action. If in the course of practice and experience knowledge we have acquired and methods we have based on it prove inefficacious we may take it that what we valued as knowledge was not true knowledge. In this way we shall be constantly broadening the scope and sifting the quality of our knowledge, which is the genuine process of gaining knowledge. "To be aware of ignorance brings knowledge" and "the open mind invites the entrance of information," are maxims than which none are better as guides in the search for knowledge.
I am well aware of the magnitude of our revolutionary task of Resistance and Reconstruction, and I have been no less impressed with recent manifestations of my comrades' will to action. I have felt impelled by the one and encouraged by the other to present you today this exposition of positive action and of what is requisite for its success, in the hope that you will all keep in mind these indispensable principles, gathering fresh knowledge with experience, acting with deliberation, perspicacity, and conscientiousness, spurning all things that tend to distract you from your fixed purpose and involve you in the wild and motiveless conduct of those who possess no such fixed purpose. In the Chung-Yung, or Doctrine of the Mean, there is a passage emphasizing the importance of "conscientiousness" in action, by which it means the refusal to be satisfied with half-measures, the pursuit of ends to their logical conclusion. If you give earnest thought to what I have said you will realize that very much of what has long passed with us for action has not been true action, that is, not positive action, and that therefore we have failed in much that we have undertaken. It is only because our action has not been really positive that we have allowed our minds to enlarge on the difficulties and dangers of the Revolution. In fact, these difficulties exist only for those whose minds lack resolution, enthusiasm and faith. The ancient adage says: "There's nothing difficult in the world if there's a man of spirit to be found" (where there's a will there's a way). This is a piece of the age-old proverbial wisdom of the people, and it may well serve us as a salutary warning against the slack thinking and evil habits concealed beneath the airy phrase: "It's easy enough to know what should be done; it's acting accordingly that's hard."
We need, therefore, in the revolutionary nation-building we have before us only to assert our wills, inflame our hearts with a fresh sincerity and faith, and give ourselves up to positive action. If everyone of us does so, I have no hesitation in pronouncing it will mean the certainty of our success.
[1] Chiang K'ai-shek, A Philosophy of Action, or What I Mean by Action, Chungking, 1940; p. 7-20. The accompanying foreword and notes are here omitted. The translation is the work of Mr. Ma P'in-ho, a naturalized Chinese scholar but of European race and nativity.
One of a series of lectures, each issued separately, entitled The Conclusions of the Party Chief, and originally delivered before the Party and Government Training Class of the Central Training Corps. Compare with Appendix I (G), p. 324.
The chart, opposite, is a translation of the chart appended to the original Chinese of the Generalissimo's booklet on Hsien. P.M.A.L.
ORGANIZATION OF THE VARIOUS CLASSIFICATIONS OF HSIEN
At the fifth meeting of the Fourth Plenary Session of the Central Executive and Supervisory Committees of the Kuomintang on April 8, 1938, I made a speech on "The Reform of Party Affairs and Readjustments for Party and Political Organizations." Attached to that speech was a draft chart showing the interrelations among the Party and political organizations under the hsien, with illustrations and explanations. I pointed out then that the chart was only intended as an initial draft. As to promulgating the detailed formulae and laws for execution, I pointed out that the draft was only to serve as a basis and that the wording in which the draft was written should not prove too binding. There should be plenty of room for further study and discussion so that perfection might be obtained. Furthermore, the draft chart was intended mainly as an exposition of the relations between Party and political organizations (hence it was also called "Party and Political Affairs Chart"). The various administrative organizations were attached as an appendix to it.
Since the publication of this draft chart, the serious attention of many of our comrades, scholars and specialists has been aroused. In many districts experiments have been carried on—a fact which is indeed very gratifying and which evidences the earnest desire on the part of various local administrations for reform.
The Party and Political Personnel Training Class was recently inaugurated by the Central Training Corps. In order to lecture on the problems covered in the draft chart and lay out the necessary formulae, I had instructed several of my associates to collect views and data from all possible sources and to make a thorough study of the question. Under my personal supervision, the original draft has been revised and supplemented. The main points contained therein may be summarized as follows:
1. In connection with Party organizations, the ch'ü[2] (township) office should be linked up with the hsiang (chên), while small units should be established under the pao chia system. Thus the Party organizations are brought to conformity with the political. The network of Party members' supervisory organizations should be placed directly under the Supervisory Committee of the hsien Party headquarters.
2. The hsien is the unit of local government autonomy. The hsien should be classified into three to six groups according to their area, population, economic resources, cultural and communication development. Below the hsien, the hsiang (chên) constitutes the basic lower unit, with pao or village and streets as their constituents. Elasticity may be allowed between the hsien and hsiang according to local requirements. When and where necessary, a ch'ü (township) office may be established to serve as the connecting link, but if this is not needed, the hsiang (chên) should be placed under the direct jurisdiction of the hsien. The same elasticity may exist between the hsiang (chên) and pao. In densely populated areas, a village and a street may form one natural unit, inseparable from each other. In such cases, one unit may consist of two or three pao with one pao chang (chief of the pao) at the helm of affairs, so that unnecessary breaking-up of the village from the street may be avoided. To eliminate difficulties arising from finances and personnel, all the posts of secretaries (kan shih) of the hsiang (chên) and pao (or village and street) may be concurrently served by the teachers of primary schools, while the school principals of the hsiang (chên) and pao should concurrently serve as leader of the able-bodied citizens' corps (Chuang ting tui) in accordance with the principle of unity of administration, instruction, support and protection. In areas with better economic and educational development where affairs concerning local autonomy are multifarious, the principals of hsiang (chên) primary schools and pao citizens' [mass education] schools should preferably concentrate on their school jobs with a view to efficiency. The masses should be organized into different groups to undertake different works in order to meet the actual requirements.
3. In connection with organs for expressing the views and opinions of the people, there should be organized the pao people's assembly, the hsiang (chên) people's representative assembly, the hsien council, each vested with proper authority, with a view to increasing the people's interest in participating in government affairs. Thus the influence of the masses may be properly magnified and the goal of true democracy attained. With a view to greater alacrity, I wish to explain in further detail as follows:
(This item, consisting of eleven articles, is not intended for publication.)
A routine announcement of Party duties, of Party supervision of local morale, of seniorities as between Party and Government officers, etc. follows. It has been omitted in accordance with the statement in parentheses.
1. The hsien is the unit of local autonomy. These units can be classified into from three to six groups according to the population, economic status, culture and communication. On the one hand, the hsien governments should handle affairs concerning local autonomy of their respective district under the supervision of the provincial government and on the other hand should carry out the orders of the Central and provincial governments.
a. The area of the hsien under the present system should remain the same as before. The cancellation of the hsien and the change in its area are to be decided upon only with the authorization and approval of the Central Government. In the hsien there should be a magistrate, under whom there should be secretaries, section chiefs, directors, police officers, senior and junior staff members in the different sections, technicians and assistants and police patrol officers handling civic, financial, educational, construction, military, land, and social affairs. The number of sections to be provided under the hsien governments and their duties is to be decided by the provincial government which in making decisions is to take into consideration the local requirements of the hsien concerned. The number of staff members, and their ranks and salaries, is likewise to be decided upon by the provincial government.
b. In each hsien there should be held hsien political affairs meetings at which decisions concerning the hsien administration are to be reached and proposals made for submission to the hsien People's Council. The hsien political affairs meetings should be held irrespective of whether the hsien Council has been established or not.
c. The rules and regulations governing the organization of the hsien governments should be promulgated by the provincial governments and then submitted to the Central Government for approval.
2. The ch'ü (township) office is a subsidiary organization to the hsien government. Its duty is to supervise the affairs of the various hsiang (chên) on behalf of the hsien government in connection with the enforcement of local autonomy.
a. The scope of the ch'ü should consist of from six to fifteen hsiang. In those hsien in which the total number of hsiang is below fifteen, no ch'ü office should be established. The hsiang in such cases are to be placed under the direct jurisdiction of the hsien government. In frontier regions where special conditions obtain, specifications for the number of hsiang for the ch'ü office may be modified.
In hsien where no ch'ü office is established, the hsien government should appoint representatives to supervise the affairs of the different hsiang.
b. The ch'ü office is headed by a district chief under whom there should be two to five directors handling civic, financial, construction, education, and military affairs. All such personnel are by special appointment with pay, and they should be chosen by the superior organizations from those who have received appropriate training. The district chiefs should preferably be those who come from the districts to which they are designated, their qualifications and treatment to be fixed by law.
c. In the place where the ch'ü office is seated, there should be established a police bureau which is to be under the direction of the district chief dealing with the police administration of the place.
d. In the ch'ü there should be established the hsiang reconstruction committee comprising local leaders as members. This committee is to conduct research and map out the plans concerning rural reconstruction, the district chief acting concurrently as its chairman.
e. In order to increase the vocational ability of the people and develop local industries, there should be established in the ch'ü vocational training classes.
f. In addition to the number of policemen as specified, there should be organized in the ch'ü the joint able-bodied citizens' corps (Chuang-ting lien tui-pu) office which is to control and supervise the Chuang-ting of the various hsiang (chên). Whenever necessary, the chuang-ting may be summoned together for special training and organization.
g. The ch'ü office should unite together all the hsiang (chên) cooperative societies and organize them into cooperative unions. Each union is to consist of several departments dealing with different cooperative enterprises. The ch'ü office should appoint a supervisor to be stationed in the union.
3. The hsiang (chên) is to be defined as the basic administrative unit under the hsien, and its organization should be substantiated accordingly.
a. Each hsiang in principle comprises six to fifteen pao. In drawing such limits, however, consideration should be given to the historical background and natural conditions of the locality. The demarcation and the organization of the pao chia system are to be decided upon by the hsien government, subject to the approval of the provincial government. Reports must also be submitted to the Central Government.
b. The chief personnel of the hsiang guild (kung so) should include a director (hsiang chang) and one or two vice-directors. They are to be elected from qualified citizens at the hsiang people's representative meetings. In the guild there should be provided four departments, handling civic, police, economic and cultural affairs respectively, each to be headed by one man with several staff members. These posts should be held by the vice-directors and teachers of the hsiang primary schools. The date for the election of the director and vice-directors of the hsiang is to be fixed and announced in orders to be issued by the hsien government. The term of their office will be two years.
c. There should be established in each hsiang a central school composed of three divisions for children, women especially, and adults. There should be primary and higher primary classes. The posts of the school principal, leader of the able-bodied citizens' corps, and director of the hsiang are to be concurrently held by one man. The teachers are to undertake the extracurricular duties of training and supervising. They are also to help the hsiang director to handle affairs of the hsiang. In the higher primary class of the school stress should be laid on training the masses to enable them to undertake the work of census-taking, promotion of health and sanitation and cooperative affairs.
In places with better economic and educational development, the principals of the hsiang central schools should preferably concentrate on their own duties at school.
d. The cooperative societies also have the hsiang as the unit (with branch societies in the pao). There should also be established in the hsiang public safe-deposit agencies for the storage of articles. Separate granaries should be set up whenever necessary.
e. The leader of the hsiang able-bodied citizens' corps should from time to time summon chosen groups of the chuang ting of the pao to the hsiang to undergo advanced training. During the training period, they are to perform police duties and when the period expires they are to be sent back to take up the work as junior officers of the able-bodied citizens' corps of the pao, charged also with the duties of promoting local autonomy in the pao. Thus not only will the police force be strengthened, but various activities properly developed. The outposts established in the hsiang by the hsien police bureaus should also be placed under the direction of the hsiang director.
f. The hsiang should convene hsiang affairs meetings with the director as chairman and all the department heads and senior members of the staff in attendance. The chiefs of the pao concerning whom proposals are submitted to the meeting should also be present.
g. A hospital or clinic should be established for each hsiang or a number of hsiang. These hospitals or clinics should be staffed with Western-trained doctors. In case of lack of personnel and finance, [old-style] Chinese physicians may do on a temporary basis.
4. The pao should be defined as a constituent of the hsiang and its organization be substantiated accordingly.
a. Each pao is to consist of from six to fifteen chia, headed by a pao chang (chief of the pao) and an assistant pao chang. They are to be elected from qualified citizens at the pao people's meeting, and their names are to be submitted by the hsiang guild to the hsien government. Before the election, the pao chang and assistant pao chang may be nominated by the hsiang guild subject to official appointment by the hsien government. In the office of the pao there should be two to four secretaries (kan shih) handling civic, police, economic and cultural affairs. These posts may be concurrently held by the assistant pao chang and teachers of citizens' (mass education) schools. In pao with limited finances, one secretary may suffice.
The term of office for the pao chang and assistant pao chang will be two years. They may be re-elected at the expiration of their term of office.
b. All affairs of the pao should be discussed and transacted at pao affairs meeting in which as many capable citizens of the pao as possible are to be asked to participate, in order to hasten progress of the reconstruction of the pao.
c. All the activities undertaken by the pao are to be under the supervision and direction of the hsiang guild, the ch'ü office and the hsien government. The latter superior organs should give constant help and advice so that the program of work may be carried out step by step as desired.
d. Every pao is to have a mass education school, with the principal of the school concurrently serving as the pao chang and as the leader of the pao able-bodied citizens' corps. The school is to comprise three divisions for children, for women especially, and for adults, and its aim is to raise the level of education and vocational ability of the masses. Teachers are also to help the pao chang in dealing with various affairs of the pao.
In pao better-developed in economic resources and education, the principles of the mass education schools should preferably concentrate on their school duties.
e. Membership of the pao branches of the cooperative societies is composed of the families in the pao. The directors of the branch societies are to be elected by members. The pao chang can be elected and concurrently hold this office.
f. The pao office, the pao able-bodied citizens' corps and the pao mass education schools should be simultaneously established. They should have a joint office so that affairs of common interest may be pushed from the same center.
g. In densely populated areas where a village and a street seem each to be an integral part of the other, two or three pao may be amalgamated, the amalgamation not exceeding three pao. The mass education schools, branch cooperative societies and treasuries, likewise, may be amalgamated, with only the pao able-bodied citizens' corps remaining separate. One presiding pao chang is to be elected to take the helm of affairs, and a joint office is to be established.
h. The pao should be equipped with a medicine box, with one of the mass education school teachers trained in rudiments of the medical science, in charge. He is to give simple treatment for diseases and to give small-pox vaccination. If this should prove beyond the finances of one pao, several pao may join together.
i. The organization of the chia is to consist of from six to fifteen families, headed by a chia chang. There should be meetings of the heads of families, and general chia conferences, held from time to time.
The chia chang is to be elected at the meeting of heads of families. His name is to be submitted by the pao office to the hsiang guild.
j. The pao may retain its old name, such as ts'un (village), chieh (street) or ch'ang (market), but it is desired that they should gradually adopt the official name of pao with a view to uniformity.
1. To increase the people's interest in participation in government affairs and to train their political insight and ability in accordance with the principle of the inherent unity of teaching, learning and practicing, people's organs for discussion of government affairs for the various administrative units under the hsien should be established within specified time limits, and these organs should be vested with the appropriate authority.
2. In the pao should be established the pao people's meeting to elect the pao chang; the hsiang, the hsiang people's representative meeting to elect the hsiang chang.[3] (The qualifications and standards of both the pao chang and the hsiang chang are to be specified by law.) Thus it is hoped to attain the ideal standards of local government and to establish the system of the people's supervision of the government. No people's organ is needed for the ch'ü (district), while the hsien people's council will serve as the general organ for people of the entire hsien.
3. With a view to flexibility in the exercise of the people's privileges, members of the hsien people's council are to be brought forth at the hsiang people's representative meetings. Each hsiang is entitled to elect one representative as member of the council. The number of representatives of legitimate professional bodies may be increased in order to put representation of the districts and that of the professions on equal footing. Representatives to the hsiang people's meeting are to be produced at the pao people's meeting. Each pao is entitled to two representatives. The pao people's meeting should be attended by one person from each family whose qualifications and position in the family conforms to specifications in the law.
4. The hsiang chang and pao chang who are elected may both act as chairmen of their respective people's organs, namely the hsiang people's representative meeting and the pao people's meeting. The hsien people's council for the time being is not to elect the magistrate. It is to elect its own chairman.
5. Before the hsien people's council is organized, the budget and accounts of the hsien government should be studied and passed by the hsien Administrative Meeting and then submitted by the magistrate to the provincial government for approval.
After the hsien people's council is inaugurated, the budget and accounts of the hsien should be presented to the council for examination and then submitted to the provincial government for approval. When necessary, the budget and accounts may first be sent to the provincial government for approval and then the council may be approached for confirmation and verification.
1. The basic spirit of this draft is to arouse and mobilize the masses, to strengthen local organization and hasten district autonomy enterprises so that the cornerstone of the revolution and national reconstruction may be laid. Some may be of the opinion that as education has not been popularized, it would be difficult to allow the masses participation in government affairs. But the political system stressing on people's privileges must be founded on the will of the masses. If participation in government affairs is allowed only after education has been developed on a nation-wide scale, the slogan "revolutionized people's privileges" will be of no meaning. The people need only be trained practically in the exercise of their political privileges, and the main task of the government during the political tutelage period lies in teaching the people how to exercise their four rights [election; recall; initiative; referendum]. Tutelary government [Party-dictatorship] and constitutional government are different only in degree but not in fundamentals. During the period of tutelage, therefore, the interest of the people in participation in government affairs must be gradually aroused and increased. Thus measures enforced with this purpose in view during the political tutelage period may not contravene the aims of constitutional government, and the progress from tutelage to constitutionalism may be attained smoothly. This explains the transitional process from the beginning to the complete realization of autonomous government and it was for such an explanation that this draft was prepared.
2. With a view to the solution of the personnel and financial problems confronting the various basic administrative units, the hsiang chief, hsiang central school principal, and the hsiang leader of the able-bodied citizens' corps, excepting in those areas more highly developed in education and economic resources, should be the same man. The same thing applies to the pao. All those charged with administrative duties should pay attention to education which should serve as the means to attain the objectives of the revolution and national reconstruction. Those with educational responsibilities should give their time and energy also to the organization and training of the masses. They should consider the masses as their students, the society as a school and all existing circumstances and conditions as references of instruction. Emphasis should also be laid on instructing the people how to live properly, how to accomplish their duties. The basic principles governing the revolutionary movement and national reconstruction as laid down by our late Leader [Sun Yat-sen], measures on the control of rice and the control of land as stipulated in the ordinances and regulations governing district autonomy, together with the seven measures previously announced by the Central Government, should all be included in the scope of instruction. It was with these considerations in mind that this draft provides that teachers of the hsiang middle [secondary] and pao mass-education schools should concurrently act as secretaries of the hsiang guild and pao office. It would not do to maintain the old system when school teachers only taught in the classroom, with the result that in many places where schools have been conducted for many years people still refuse to be conscripted, to pay taxes, to observe the New Life principles. This could be attributed to the fact that teachers and others in charge of the schools failed to do their duties.
It is also provided in the ordinances and regulations governing the initial enforcement of district autonomy that "aside from enabling people to read and write, schools should also emphasize what has been known as the 'omnipotency of both hands' campaign." We should try to make all the tools or machines that can increase the productive ability of both hands, instead of relying on others. From now on, therefore, local schools should emphasize vocational training by which the students may be taught how to manufacture simple machines. This is not merely scientific education but also an important way of carrying out the doctrine of the people's livelihood. It is therefore provided in this draft that in the ch'ü (township) there should be established the district vocational training class so that education and living may be closely wedded.
In the past, educational organization has been too complicated. Besides primary schools, there have been mass education schools, short-term primary schools, rural schools. Now, since it is stipulated that the pao has pao mass education schools and the hsiang has hsiang middle schools, the children and adults should be taught in separate classes but at the same school so that all the former units of education may be absorbed. The tutor (tao shêng) system should be used as much as possible in the hope that the entire people of the nation may be given at least the minimum education for citizenship within a limited period of time. Thus all the personnel and finances may be concentrated; the teachers may conveniently do their duty in directing the masses into proper participation in various local enterprises. In this way, education and autonomy may be closely affiliated with each other.
3. The organization of the various local administrative units is roughly in accordance with the decimal system. In such provisions of this draft, allowances have been made whereby the difficulties in the way of enforcement of the system may be solved. Once the scope of the various local administrative units is fixed, all plans and programs such as establishing schools, training personnel, appropriation of funds and statistics may be mapped out according to definite standards. The conduct of a big nation with its variegated enterprises depends on strict organization in war-time as well as in peace-time. In the army, for instance, the number of units composing each army corps is definitely fixed. Scientific administration must be governed by rules and regulations.
For the convenience of execution, certain elasticity has been allowed in provisions concerning organization in this draft. The hsiang, for instance, is composed of from six to fifteen pao, and so on with other lower administrative units. In cases where the village and the street cannot be separated, joint organizations for the handling of affairs of common interest is allowed. All these provisions are arrived at in order to allow some flexibility whenever and wherever necessary. Within the bounds of these regulations, the various local district governments may exercise their discretion in disposing their respective affairs without consulting their superior governments. But they will not be permitted to trespass beyond the limits because disorderly organizations will make control and supervision hard.
After the scope of the various local administrative units is fixed, their respective spheres of education, health, cooperative movements and police must also be uniformly determined so that control, instruction, support, and protection may have an equal and well-balanced development.
4. Concerning the organization and training of the masses, it is indeed regrettable that no wholesome accomplishments have been achieved during the past many years. According to this new draft, the following explanations have to be made:
a. Demarcation among people's groups and organizations: the former is determined by professions and the latter according to age and sex. From the standpoint of the requirements of the country, the latter should be organized first. Especially urgent is the demand for such organizations as the able-bodied citizens' corps and women's associations. From the standpoint of the needs of the people, the organization of the professional groups should be put on a sound basis as soon as possible, particularly the farmers, laborers, and merchants groups which are vitally concerned with the economic reconstruction movement of the country. Steps, therefore, should immediately be taken in the order of urgency. Next, for people's organizations, emphasis is to be laid on organization and training; for the groups, direction and supervision are to be stressed.
b. The work of organizing the various people's groups should proceed from the bottom upwards because wholesome organizations can only be had when the foundation is soundly laid. In peace-time, this will help forward self-rule. In war-time, it will help meet military needs. In the past, the various people's groups (such as farmers' associations and women's associations) had only nominal existence, hanging their shingles in the hsien city, but few really worked. The reasons might be many, but the main one has been the failure on the part of those responsible to penetrate into the lower strata of activities and help develop them. It must be realized that the various people's groups are necessary to the various administrative units in the district autonomous government system just as parts to the main body of a machine. Without the parts, the machine would not be able to operate. From now on, therefore, efforts must be made to substantiate the people's bodies so that they may be enabled to function efficiently.
c. The able-bodied citizens' corps are necessary in peace as well as in war-time. Attention should be paid both to training and to the supervision so that their usefulness may be fully developed. The constituents of the able-bodied citizens' corps are the pillars of society, and on them depends the successful realization of most enterprises concerning district autonomy. In this lies the importance of our late Leader's [Sun Yat-sen] teaching about "omnipotency of both hands." During the training, emphasis should not be on military alone but also on general and vocational ability, in order to turn corps members into useful members of society.
5. The people's organs for various local administrative units serve best the purpose of training the people in the exercise of their rights in government affairs. They constitute the prerequisites for democracy. In the past, it has proved difficult to secure hsiang, pao and chia chiefs; or, after they were elected to their respective offices, they failed to do their duties and some of them even committed acts harmful to the people which slipped the notice of the superior government offices. All these shortcomings must be overcome by virtue of democratic measures. The higher supervisory organizations, limited in personnel, can hardly keep an eye on every small detail. The hsiang and pao chiefs and other staff members under them are most closely associated with the people. In order to prevent them from undermining the people's interest for their selfish gains, the democratic (Min-chu) control and supervision system should be enforced as the most efficient and effective method. That the pao people's meeting should be attended by the families as representative units is a preliminary step. This is so because China is an agricultural country, different from other industrialized nations where the individual citizens constitute the representative units. Representatives to the hsiang people's representative meetings are to be produced at the pao people's meeting. Councilors from the hsiang and higher administrative units for the hsien people's council are to be produced by indirect instead of direct election. Next comes the question of increasing the people's economic stability and developing local enterprises. It is specially provided that adequate representation to the various professional groups should be given in the hsien people's council. (This is limited to the professional groups and their representation is not to exceed thirty per cent.) In this way the district conception and the interests of professions are given equal consideration.
6. To prepare the personnel for the various local administrative government units, the various grades of schools should be adapted to the needs of the local organizations and enterprises. With such adaptation, the school training may not be in vain and young students upon graduation may find appropriate employment. A separate set of rules and regulations should be promulgated whereby these youths may be encouraged and their future welfare safeguarded. At present, the training of such personnel and their future disposal have not been systematically enough planned. Proper remedy must be provided so that definite standards may be fixed. Most important of all, persons properly trained should be assigned to places where are located their native home villages or towns. All such jobs concerning the development of district enterprises like insurance of treasuries or storehouses, transportation of rice and foodstuffs, farmland irrigation, fishing, grazing, and land reclamation, should all be filled by persons with special technical training. As the development of such district enterprises continues, the demand for appropriate personnel will grow as a foregone conclusion.
7. With regard to financial problems, the late Leader instructed that the district self-rule organizations should be founded on the basis of "political and economic cooperation." The sources of finance, therefore, should be derived from the people's public productive enterprises, instead of depending on new taxes. There are many public properties in various localities that should be utilized. Instead, these have mainly been exploited and monopolized by individuals who cared for nothing but their own selfish interests. Henceforth, these properties should be placed under public control. With efficient management, the proceeds from these enterprises should serve as finances for the entire hsiang or pao. In case such properties consist of land, they could be turned into experimental farms and be placed under the management of the schools for the improvement of agricultural products and for training the people in reformed farming methods. The joint property of a clan should be dealt with in a similar way so that their income may be increased and the results of agricultural improvement programs may be extended from one locality to another easily. In places where there are no such lands, steps should be taken to reclaim the mountainous or hilly regions or the streams and ponds. Free labor may be utilized with a view to increasing the income. Besides, surplus rice may be stored in the hsiang and the pao, under the management of the people of the respective districts. The various cooperative societies transporting agricultural products should also provide granaries and issue mortgage loans. Part of the profits thus derived should be devoted as funds for the development of local enterprises. Thus not only will the financial problem be solved but district autonomy development will follow local needs. Before the local public enterprises (as described above) are so developed that income is sufficient to meet financial requirements, attention should be paid to the following measures:
a. Taxes which the hsiang guild may collect independent of the superior government offices.
b. The finances of the hsien should be demarcated from those of the province, and the quota of the former should be gradually increased if possible.
c. In lean hsien, the hsien government should be subsidized by the provincial government.
8. Last of all, it should be pointed out that this draft was drawn up after repeated discussions and studies. Henceforth, all the hsien and lower district government units in the autonomy system should observe this draft as the basis. This is a time of national crisis when the destiny of our entire nation and race is hanging between life and death. It is hoped that all comrades of our Party and our fellow-countrymen should strive with strong determination for nation-wide enforcement of these district autonomy measures. Bold initiative should solve any unforeseen difficulties that may arise. Fear and hesitation should never be allowed to gain the upper hand. Only in this way, may we hope that the cornerstone for various political levels of true democracy is laid on a sound basis, and only in this way may we hope that the stupendous task of national reconstruction can be accomplished.