The failure of the second German Arctic Expedition to reach a high latitude on the east coast of Greenland directed attention to the seas of Novaya Zemlya. In order, however, that large sums of money might not be spent on a plan which might be unfeasible, it was decided to dispatch a pioneer expedition under the joint command of Lieutenant Weyprecht and Julius Payer. The latter had greatly distinguished himself in the German Expedition.

In order to diminish expenses, a small sailing ship, the Isbjorn, of 55 tons, was chartered at Tromsoe. She was new and strong, and this was her first voyage. Her bows were protected with sheet iron, 2 feet above, and 2 feet under water. The crew consisted of eight Norwegians.

Tromsoe was left on the 20th June 1871. They were detained two days at Sandoe by contrary winds, and on the 28th the first ice was met in 73° 40′ south-east of Bear Island. Here they passed through 40 miles of loose drift-ice, and then met the pack in 74° 30′. Calms set in, and the Isbjorn was beset for ten days. On the 10th July it escaped and sailed eastward. They reached longitude 40° E., and then were forced to return westward. Hope Island was reached, and the course was then directed north, but ice was met with in 76° 30′. Three attempts were made to reach Stor-Fiord from the western side of Cape Lookout, but each time the Isbjorn was driven back by the current.

Towards the middle of August the ice to the east of Hope Island had cleared away, and on the 22nd August 76° 45′ was reached, but contrary winds prevented a higher latitude being attained. The course was again set eastwards along the margin of the ice, and on the 31st of August the latitude was 78° 30′.

They had now arrived at the conclusion that the Novaya Zemlya Sea was not filled with impenetrable ice, as was generally supposed, but that it was probably open every year up to 78°, and that the most favourable time for navigation was towards the end of August.

The Isbjorn returned to Tromsoe on 4th October.

It was now considered desirable that a well-equipped expedition should be dispatched to the Novaya Zemlya seas, either to penetrate towards the north, or to attempt the North-East Passage—hence the Austro-Hungarian Expedition.

The Tegetthoff, a vessel of 220 tons burden, was fitted out for two and a half years. The engine was of 100 horse-power, and the ship carried 130 tons of coal. The officers and crew numbered twenty-four. Some spoke German, some Italian, and others either Slavonic or Hungarian. The command was twofold: Weyprecht had charge of the ship, and Payer had command of the sledge-expeditions.

The Tegetthoff left Bremerhaven on the 13th of June 1872, and Tromsoe was reached on the 3rd of July. Here they remained a week while the ship was overhauled and repaired and the supply of coal replenished. Captain Olaf Carlsen joined the ship as ice-master and harpooner. He had deservedly gained fame through having circumnavigated Spitzbergen and Novaya Zemlya. Tromsoe was left on 13th July.

Ice was first seen on 25th July in latitude 74°. On the 29th they were able to continue their course only under steam, and the vessel encountered heavy shocks in charging the ice. Next day they were beset, and did not escape from the ice until 3rd August, when they broke through into the open coast-water of Novaya Zemlya. A belt of ice 105 miles broad lay behind them, and they steered due north in view of the mountainous coasts.

Great was their astonishment and joy when on 12th August they met the Isbjorn and found on board Count Wilczek, who had given a large donation towards the expense of the expedition, and who was about to establish a dépôt of provisions at Cape Nassau. The two ships now proceeded north in company to the Barentz Isles, where a dépôt of provisions was established. Here they parted from the Isbjorn, and steamed towards the north on the 20th August. Within a few hours the Tegetthoff became beset, and was destined never to be again released. The position was now 76° 22′ N. latitude, 63° 3′ E. longitude. Well might Payer write: “Happy is it for men, that inextinguishable hope enables them to endure all the vicissitudes of fate, which are to test their powers of endurance, and that they can never see, as at a glance, the long series of disappointments in store for them!”

From day to day they hoped they would be able to escape from the ice; then they hoped from week to week, then from season to season, and lastly in the chances of new years!

The ship drifted slowly towards the north, and had passed the 77° on 2nd October. On the 6th October the first bear was killed and was divided among the dogs. They had on board eight dogs, six of which had been brought from Vienna, and the other two from Lapland.

On the 12th October only a line of heights some 30 miles away to the south could be seen, and soon afterwards every trace of land disappeared. As winter approached, the ice pressures began, and during the next few months the crew were kept in a state of terror. Preparations were made to abandon the ship if necessary, and for long periods the crew did not undress. Nightly they rushed on deck, more than once believing that at last the ship was doomed. Floes were crushed and piled around the ship high above the level of the deck, and noise and confusion reigned supreme. They lived as if they constantly expected an earthquake. This condition of affairs continued in greater or lesser measure for 130 days. Some of the crew must have been very superstitious, as indicated by the fact that the antlers of a reindeer which were on board were suspected of having something to do with the ice pressure, and were thrown overboard. This not having the desired effect, the skull of a bear was treated likewise. It may be mentioned here that during this expedition no fewer than sixty-seven polar bears were killed.

The Tegetthoff still slowly drifted to the north, and on the 19th February 1873 had reached latitude 78° 15′. Payer formed the opinion that wind was the main cause of the drifting, and that sea-currents were only of secondary importance. De Long and Nansen in later years were to prove that Payer’s opinion was true.

Life on board the Tegetthoff was extremely monotonous, especially during the darkness of winter. With the arrival of summer in 1873, they had great hope of deliverance from the ice, but this hope was not realised.

The second summer was drawing to a close when the most remarkable event of the voyage occurred. It was on the 30th August, in latitude 79° 43′ and longitude 59° 33′ E., that the startling discovery was made that land could be seen in the distance. This discovery, totally unexpected, infused new life into the whole expedition. The new land received its name from that of the Austrian Emperor, and was christened Kaiser Franz-Josef’s Land. By the end of September the Tegetthoff had drifted to 79° 58′, which was the highest latitude it attained. An attempt was now made to reach the land, but a fog compelled the party to return to the ship.

At the beginning of November the ship had drifted to a point not far from land, and a second attempt to reach it proved successful. The sun, however, had now disappeared, and the twilight did not enable them to make any extended exploration. There was also a danger of the ship drifting away.

The second winter passed much more pleasantly than the first. The ice pressures were not very severe, and the crew had become much more accustomed to them. The exploration of the new land which was to take place in the spring of 1874 gave food for much speculation, and tended to relieve the monotony.

In February 1874, Payer, as commander of the expedition on shore, held a council to whom he explained his plan for the projected sledge-journeys. As there was a possibility of the ship drifting away from the land, it was decided that provisions for three months should be deposited on land, and that in the event of the sledge-party being cut off from the ship they should attempt to reach Europe. The sledge-expeditions were to begin in March and be continued for six or seven weeks. It was also agreed that after the termination of the sledge-expeditions the Tegetthoff should be abandoned, and that the whole expedition should attempt to reach Europe in their boats.

The greatest activity now reigned in the ship, in order to be prepared for the sledge-journey. Some of the crew had suffered from scurvy, but with the exception of the engineer, who was suffering from consumption, there was no dangerous case of sickness.

The sledges used had runners 6, 8, and 11 feet long, and 1½, 2, and 2¾ inches broad, respectively, and were gently curved at each end. The height of the sledges above the snow was about 1 foot, and they were constructed of the best ash. They carried loads amounting to 7, 12, and 20 cwt. The two runners were fastened together by two strong front boards, and by four cross-pieces of wood firmly lashed to the upright standards of the sledge, which were themselves dovetailed into the runners.

As regards the cooking apparatus, Payer points out that it should be made of sheet iron, each of its parts of one piece, and there should be no soldering, in order to diminish the risk of breakage and the setting fire to the tent by the escape of the spirit in a state of combustion.

The covering for the feet consisted of sail-cloth boots, lined with flannel, and soled with stout felt. They were made wide so that they could be put easily over three pairs of strong woollen stockings.

The first sledge-party left the ship on 11th March 1874. It was equipped for one week, and its object was to reconnoitre a route for an extended journey towards the north. Payer took six men and three dogs. In about two hours after leaving the ship they had passed the south-west cape of Wilczek Island, on which they had previously landed. During this journey Payer began the determination of the localities of Franz-Josef Land, by a triangulation of elevated points, to which the measurement of a base was afterwards to be added. The ascent of high mountains therefore formed part of the programme.

Hall Island at Cape Tegetthoff was reached on the 12th March. Part of the journey had to be made against driving snow with a temperature about 26° F. below zero. In the afternoon of the 12th, Payer with two Tyrolese ascended the plateau of Cape Tegetthoff. Those who remained behind spent their time in rubbing their feet with snow. The summit was reached in two hours, and the height was ascertained to be 2600 feet. The weather conditions were not favourable, and the view in consequence was limited. Next morning they entered Nordenskjöld Fiord, and at noon reached the high, precipitous termination of Sonklar Glacier. In the afternoon, Payer with the Tyrolese ascended Cape Littrow, 2500 feet in height, and early on the morning of the 14th they ascended to the summit of the precipitous face of the Sonklar Glacier. Here the temperature went down to the lowest ever experienced by Payer, about 59° F. below zero. They had taken some rum with them, and as each took his share, he knelt down and allowed another to shake it into his mouth, without bringing the metal cup in contact with the lips. The rum seemed to have lost all its strength and fluidity. It tasted like milk, and its consistence was that of oil. The bread was frozen so hard that they feared to break their teeth in biting it, and it brought blood as they ate it. They attempted to smoke cigars, but the icicles on their beards always put them out. The instruments used in surveying seemed to burn when they were touched. Payer found that this extreme cold was depressing in its influence, and enfeebled the powers of the will. At first, cold stimulates to action, but when extreme, this vigour is quickly followed by torpidity; exertion is soon followed by the desire to rest. Persons exposed to these extremely low temperatures feel as if they were intoxicated: from the stiffness and trembling of their jaws they speak with great effort. When dragging a sledge, their breath streams forth like smoke, which is soon transformed into a mass of needles of ice, almost hiding their mouths from view. Ice becomes so hard that it emits a ringing sound; wood is as difficult to cut as bone; butter becomes like stone; meat must be split, and mercury may be fired as a bullet from a gun. Snow of a temperature of 30° below zero feels in the mouth like hot iron, and does not quench but increases thirst by its inflammatory action on the mucous membrane.

After descending from the Sonklar Glacier, they decided to return to the ship, which was reached on the 15th March. Two of the party had frost-bitten feet, one had his face frost-bitten, and a fourth had both his hands severely affected. Next day, Krisch, the engineer, died from consumption. He was buried on Wilczek Island.

The second sledge-journey began on the 26th March. Payer again took six men and three dogs. The provisions consisted of boiled beef, bread, pemmican, bacon, extract of meat, condensed milk, coffee, chocolate, rice, grits, salt, pepper, peas-sausage, and sugar. The total weight carried, including two sledges, amounted to about 14 cwt.

They had not gone more than 1000 yards from the ship when driving snow compelled them to pass twenty-four hours in the tent. A start was again made on the 27th March, but when near Wilczek Island they had to halt for an hour in order to rub the frost-bitten hands of one of the men. On the 29th, Payer ascended the rocky heights of Koldewey Island. On the shore of this island the winter retreat of a family of bears was discovered. It was a cavity hollowed out in a mass of snow lying under a rocky wall. As they proceeded north they went round Schönau Island, named after Payer’s birthplace. Here a dépôt of provisions was placed in a cleft of the rocks and covered with 4 feet of snow.

When nearing Cape Frankfurt, which is a promontory of Hall Island, they could not make out whether the opening between this and the Wullersdorf Mountains would be the proper route to the north. In order to settle this question, Payer and Haller left the sledge and made a forced march to Cape Frankfurt, which they ascended, and from a height of 2000 feet were able to ascertain the route. From here the coasts of Wilczek Land appeared to run in a northerly direction, and then to trend gradually to the north-east. A broad inlet, to which the name “Austria Sound” was given, was seen to run far towards the north. A great many icebergs were met here, indicating the presence of large glaciers. On the day that they entered this sound, a bear was killed, from which they took 50 lb. of flesh for their own use, and gave the rest of the carcass to the dogs. At the same time they deposited 50 lb. of boiled beef on an iceberg close by.

On the 4th April they passed Cape Tyrol in driving snow, and on this day one of the dogs was lost. A gull flew past and the dog burst away from the sledge, and in hot pursuit of the bird disappeared from sight, and was never seen again. On the 5th April the 81st degree was reached. Before setting out on this journey, Payer guaranteed to give the men 1000 florins if the 81st degree was reached, and 2500 florins if they reached the 82nd degree. Two bears were killed on this day, and their flesh formed the principal food. It was not, however, much appreciated. Payer describes it as tolerable food for sea-gulls, but hardly fit even for devils on the fast-days of the infernal regions.

When approaching Becker Island the atmospheric conditions were such that it could not be seen until it was only about 100 yards away. Instead of rounding this island, it was decided to cross it. When the highest point was reached, Austria Sound was seen to still stretch towards the north, but the sea presented the appearance of a chaos of ice-hills and icebergs.

On the 7th April, in latitude 81° 23′, could be seen the faint outlines of mountains in Crown-Prince Rudolf’s Land. Here Payer writes: “At this latitude it seemed as if Wilczek Land suddenly terminated, but when the sun scattered the driving mist we saw the glittering ranges of its enormous glaciers—the Dove Glaciers—shining down on us. Towards the north-east we could trace land trending to a cape lying in the grey distance—Cape Buda-Pesth, as it was afterwards called.” This passage was destined to form a great puzzle to Nansen in later years. It is evident, however, that the atmospheric conditions were not favourable for accurate observations, and on his map Payer shows that this part of the coast-line was considered doubtful.

As it appeared to Payer that Crown-Prince Rudolf’s Land and Karl Alexander’s Land formed a continuous whole, and therefore barred the way to the north, he diverged into Rawlinson Sound. The track lay between countless hummocks, some of which Payer estimated to be 40 feet high. The advance now became one continual zigzag. On the 9th April an iceberg was ascended from which it was seen that the hummocks in Rawlinson Sound appeared to stretch on without end. The course was therefore altered to a north-westerly direction in order to come under Crown-Prince Rudolf’s Land, but the character of the ice still remained unchanged, and Payer was compelled to make for Hohenlohe Island in the west, where he decided to divide the expedition into two parties.

Payer determined that he, with Orel, Zaninovich, and Klotz, should push on with the dog-sledge, and that the other three men should remain behind at Cape Schrötter. Payer explained the plan he meant to follow, and stated that he should be absent from five to eight days, but that if he should not return within fifteen days they were to march back to the ship with the sledge. A pocket-compass, a watch, an aneroid barometer, and a thermometer were left with the remaining party. The tent was divided in two, each party receiving a half. The advance party took provisions for eight days, and the two remaining dogs had to drag the sledge with a weight of about 4 cwt.

As they approached the promontory on the south of Crown-Prince Rudolf’s Land, numerous icebergs were met, which according to Payer were from 100 to 200 feet high. The Middendorf Glacier was now reached, and an attempt was made to cross it. Towards its lower part many crevasses were bridged over with snow. Farther on, the glacier appeared smooth and free from crevasses, and it was anticipated that it could be crossed without difficulty. Here, Klotz confessed to Payer that one of his feet was swollen and ulcerated. Payer decided at once that it would be necessary to send Klotz back to the other party at Hohenlohe Island. Laden with a sack and carrying a revolver, he set off, and soon disappeared.

Meanwhile Payer and the other two men had again packed the sledge and harnessed the dogs, and were setting out, when, without the slightest warning, the snow gave way beneath the sledge, and Zaninovich, the dogs, and the sledge disappeared in a crevasse. Payer, who was attached to the rope, was dragged backwards to the edge of the crevasse, and expected to be precipitated into it, but at this moment the sledge stuck fast between the sides of the crevasse. Orel now advanced to the edge and stated that he could see Zaninovich lying on a ledge of snow in the crevasse, with precipices all round him, and the dogs attached to the traces of the sledge. Payer, who was lying on his stomach near the edge of the crevasse, had still one of the traces fastened round his waist. This he decided to cut, although Zaninovich cried up that he was afraid that the sledge would then fall on him. When the trace was cut, the sledge made a short run and then stuck fast again. Payer now jumped the crevasse and shouted to Zaninovich that he would require to run back to Hohenlohe Island to fetch men and ropes for his rescue; that if he could contrive for four hours to keep himself from freezing, all would yet be well. Payer at once started to run down the glacier back to Cape Schrötter, 6 miles off. Bathed in perspiration, he threw off his bird-skin garments, his boots, and his shawl, and ran in his stockings through the deep snow. On the way he passed Klotz, who at first feared that Payer had lost his senses. On reaching Cape Schrötter a rope was detached from the large sledge, and the whole party, with the exception of Klotz, set off for the glacier. Reaching the glacier, they tied themselves together, Payer leading. On arrival at the crevasse, Payer shouted, but at first could hear no reply. At last he heard the whining of a dog, and then an unintelligible answer from Zaninovich. Haller, who was immediately let down by a rope, found Zaninovich still living, but almost frozen, on a ledge of snow 40 feet down the crevasse. He fastened himself and Zaninovich to the rope, and they were drawn up after great exertion. Haller again descended, and fastened the dogs to the rope. They had managed to free themselves from their traces and had sprung to a ledge near where Zaninovich had lain. After they were drawn up, they gave expression to their joy, first by rolling themselves vigorously in the snow, and then by licking the hands of the party. Haller was next raised to the level of the sledge, so that he might cut the ropes which fastened the loading. The articles were brought up one by one. Nothing of any importance had been lost. The party now descended the glacier, and the three men from Cape Schrötter returned there, while Payer and his companions camped at Cape Habermann.

A route along the west coast of Crown-Prince Rudolf’s Land was now followed. When Cape Brorok was reached, the latitude was found to be 81° 45′. Payer here writes: “To the north-west we saw at first nothing but ice up to the horizon; even with the telescope of the theodolite I could not decide for the existence of land, which Orel’s sharp eye discovered in the far distance.” Payer also remarks that, in the Arctic regions, it often happens that banks of fog on the horizon assume the character of distant ranges, for the small height to which these banks rise in the cold air causes them to be very sharply defined. It is also very common, he says, to make the same mistake in the case of mists arising from the waste water of enormous glaciers.

When Cape Auk was reached, a dark water-sky appeared in the north, and great numbers of birds were seen. Seals lay on the ice, and traces of bears and foxes were numerous. Had Payer been inclined to believe, like Hayes, in the existence of an open Polar Sea, these signs of a richer animal-life would have gone far to support the belief. Payer, however, called this belief an “antiquated hypothesis.”

The ice was now so thin that they thought it expedient to tie themselves together with a long rope. Ascending an iceberg in Teplitz Bay, the open sea was seen stretching far to the west; and at Cape Säulen the open water reached the coast. Here Payer ascended a height to reconnoitre the track for next day. Land was no longer visible towards the north. The 12th April was the last day of advance in a northerly direction. The march lay over snowy slopes to the summits of the coast-range, from 1000 to 3000 feet high. At noon the latitude was taken at Cape Germania, and found to be 81° 57′. They reached Cape Fligely in five hours, and here decided to turn back. Payer estimated the latitude of this point to be 82° 5′. Rudolf’s Land still stretched in a north-easterly direction towards a cape named after Sherard Osborne. From Cape Fligely it could be seen that the open water was simply a “Polynia” surrounded by old ice. Blue mountain-ranges were believed to be visible in the distant north, and were named “King Oscar Land” and “Petermann Land.”

After enclosing a brief account of the journey in a bottle and depositing it in a cleft of rock, the return journey was begun. Cape Schrötter was reached on the evening of the 13th April. It was well for those left there that nothing serious happened to Payer’s party, for although all the means of ascertaining their position had been given to them, when asked what direction they would have taken to return to the ship, they pointed north-east up Rawlinson Sound!

Cape Schrötter was left on the 14th April, and the party made for the Coburg Islands, in very bad weather. Klotz’s foot had become much worse, and all those who had been left behind were more or less snow-blind. It struck Payer as peculiar that the dogs did not suffer from this affection, close as they were to the glare of the snow and without any protection against it. Coburg Islands were reached in the evening. Next day, after a severe march, they got clear of the region of ice-hummocks, and were able to use their sledge-sail. On the return journey Payer ascended Cape Hellwald, 2200 feet, and Cape Tyrol, 3000 feet, above sea-level.

On the 19th April, south of Cape Tyrol, they came on open water, and had to take to the coast of Wilczek Land. The iceberg on which one of the dépôts had been placed was afloat, and could not be reached. Their provisions were now running short, and they were still 55 miles from the ship. During the next two days they struggled on in terrible weather. Their last dépôt, fortunately, was discovered, and also the remains of a bear killed on the way north. The open water was now found to have retreated to the west, and this enabled them to reach Cape Frankfurt, on Hall Island. From here the ice could be seen stretching away to the south. When Cape Orgel was reached, it was with anxious feelings that Payer began its ascent. It was from here he would be able to ascertain whether the Tegetthoff had been drifted away from its former position. He was overjoyed to find the ship about 3 miles off. The whole party reached it on 23rd April.

The weather towards the end of April was good, and favoured the carrying out of the third and last sledge-expedition. Payer was anxious to ascertain, if possible, how far Franz-Josef Land extended towards Spitzbergen. On the 29th April he again left the ship, with Haller, Lieutenant Brosch, and the two dogs. Provisions for a week were carried. Cape Brünn, on McClintock Island, was to be their objective. This was ascended on the 2nd May, and was found to be 2500 feet high, but the boundaries of the land towards Spitzbergen could not be determined. On the night of the 2nd May they began a forced march of twenty-two hours back to the ship. The total distance of the sledge-journeys was estimated to be about 450 miles.

Preparations were now made to abandon the Tegetthoff, and to make an attempt to reach Europe. Three boats were selected for the return: two of these were Norwegian whale-boats, 20 feet long. Each of the boats was placed on a sledge, and the weight to be dragged, including everything, amounted to the formidable total of 90 cwt.

The plan was to reach the dépôt of provisions on the Barentz Islands, which lay almost directly south. After replenishing stores there, they proposed to follow the coast of Novaya Zemlya with the hope of reaching one of those ships which go there for the salmon fishery. They also had the hope that they might come across a Norwegian seal-hunter farther north.

The Tegetthoff was left on 20th May 1874. The first day’s advance amounted to 1 mile. They had to pass three times heavily laden, and twice empty, over every bit of the road. The snow was deep, and more than half of the expedition was required to move a boat. During the first week Payer and two men returned daily to the ship with the dog-sledge in order to replenish the store the party had consumed. A bear was shot on the 23rd, another on the 26th, and a third on the 31st May. At the end of May, when only 5 miles from the ship, they approached a water-space, but found the margins so surrounded with broad barriers of broken ice that the boats could not be launched. They therefore decided to camp, and wait for more favourable conditions. It was not until the 17th June that the ice opened near to them, and the boats were launched on the 18th. They had not proceeded more than 3 miles when they were stopped by ice, and the boats had to be drawn on to it. Next morning there was no water to be seen. On the 20th they crossed a “lead,” and then were detained in the same position two days. During the rest of June they had continually to cross “leads” and water-holes. At noon on the 1st July they had only reached 79° 38′. On the 4th the latitude was found to be 79° 43′, so that they had drifted north. From the 9th to the 15th July they rested and waited for the ice to open. On the 20th July the latitude was 79° 11′, so that during two calendar months they had advanced only 47 geographical miles. The water-spaces now became larger, and more satisfactory progress was made.

On the 7th August they believed they had reached the open sea, as they observed the ice alternately rising and falling. Next day they were again shut in the ice, and there was now no appearance of open water. From the 10th to the 13th they waited on the ice opening, and employed part of the time in caulking their boats. On the 13th the latitude was 77° 58′, so that they were now exactly 2 degrees south of the starting-point. On the 15th August the open water was at last reached, in 77° 40′.

The sledges were now left behind, but although the boats were much crowded, the two remaining dogs were at first taken on board. Later, however, it was found that they would put the crew to great inconvenience, and with reluctance they had to be killed. The course was now shaped towards the Barentz Islands. On the 16th, the snowy summits near Cape Nassau were sighted. Next day a fog came on, and before it cleared they found they were far beyond the Barentz Islands. Instead of returning to the dépôt, they preferred to take the risk and push on.

On the 18th August they first landed on Novaya Zemlya, where they found coltsfoot (Tussilago farfara), the leaves of which were dried and used as tobacco. They were greatly disappointed in not finding a vessel in Matoschkin Bay. On the 23rd August, only ten days’ provisions remained. In the evening on the 24th they passed Cape Britwin, and suddenly they beheld a small boat with two men in it. There was a great cry of joy from the Austrian boats, and as the two men pulled towards them, and before either party could explain, a corner of rock was turned, and now in full view lay two ships. These were two Russian vessels from Archangel, and were engaged in the salmon fishery. The Austrians were received by the Russians with the greatest friendliness. It was the intention of the latter to remain where they were for fourteen days longer, and to spend about the same number in fishing and hunting at the southern extremity of Novaya Zemlya. This programme did not suit the Austrians. It was therefore arranged that one of the vessels should take the expedition to Vardo, in Norway, without delay, and that in return for this service the Russians should receive three of the Austrian boats, two rifles, and be guaranteed a sum of 1200 silver roubles.

The Nikolai sailed on the 26th August, and reached Vardo on 3rd September. Two days later the mail steamer from Vardo to Hamburg took the expedition on board, and stopping at Tromsoe, put ashore Captain Carlsen.

The discovery of Franz-Josef Land was an important one, and stimulated further Arctic exploration. It also served as a new point from which to attack the Pole.

The Government of Queen Victoria having determined that an expedition of Arctic exploration should be undertaken, the ships Alert and Discovery were specially fitted out for this service, and the command given to Captain George S. Nares. The ship Valorous was also to accompany the expedition to Disco with stores and then return. The primary object was to attain the highest northern latitude, and, if possible, to reach the North Pole. The expedition was fitted out regardless of expense. According to the Admiralty instructions, the second ship was not to be carried northward of the 82nd parallel, so that the crew of the advance ship might fall back on it in case of emergency.

The two ships left Portsmouth on 29th May 1875, and arrived at the island of Disco without special incident. Here the services of Frederick the Eskimo were obtained, and at Proven, Hans Hendrick was also engaged. This was the same Hans who had previously accompanied three American expeditions.

A dépôt of 3600 rations was landed on the most south-eastern of the Carey Islands, and also a boat. On the 27th July the two ships passed between Northumberland and Hakluyt Islands.

On the south-west brow of Littleton Island a cairn was erected, in which was placed a notice containing a short account of the movements and prospects of the expedition up to that time.

Nares formed the opinion that “Hartstene Bay is the best winter-station on the North Greenland coast; its shores are washed by a warm current coming from the southward, whilst the projecting promontories of Cape Hatherton and Cape Ohlsen deflect the Polar current to the other side of the Sound. Owing to the narrowing of the channel at the entrance of Smith Sound the velocity of the tidal currents is greatly augmented, and even in winter large water-spaces are kept open. The moisture and warmth imparted to the atmosphere by the uncovered water moderates the climate in its vicinity to some extent, and consequently we find in the neighbourhood of Hartstene Bay a land comparatively well vegetated and a great abundance of animal-life. As Port Foulke can be visited yearly from the southward in all but very exceptional seasons, it can be recommended as an important base if further explorations by Smith Sound are hereafter undertaken.”

On 29th July the two ships crossed Smith Sound, steering direct for Cape Isabella. The snow-clad coast of Ellesmere Land was very clearly defined, the black headlands, separated by glacier-filled valleys, standing out prominently from the white background.

A cairn was erected on the outer spur of Cape Isabella, 700 feet above the water-line; a cask for letters and a few cases of preserved meat being hidden away on a lower point, about 300 feet high, magnetic west of the cairn.

Proceeding northward, shelter had to be taken in a harbour, named after Payer, beside Brevoort Island. Nares mentions this as a most convenient waiting-place for vessels attempting to proceed northward by Smith Sound. A dépôt of 240 rations was placed on the peninsula that forms the southern protection of the harbour. A cairn was built on the summit of Brevoort Island, in which a record paper was subsequently placed. These provisions were not afterwards touched.

The second large dépôt of 3000 rations, for use in the event of a compulsory retreat, was landed at a small protected bay 2 miles north of Cape Hawks.

Cape Frazer, where the Polar and Baffin’s Bay tides meet, was passed on the 19th of August. During the previous three weeks they had advanced 90 miles, or about 4¼ miles a day.

At Cape Collinson a dépôt of 240 rations was landed about 100 yards inshore and 30 feet above the water-line. These provisions were not afterwards disturbed by the expedition.

On reaching Kennedy Channel it was decided to make for open water, which was seen in the middle of the strait. This was reached after some difficulty, and the ships were soon advancing up the channel, which was comparatively free of ice, and was therefore in much the same condition as when seen by Morton. They steered for Cape Morton, at the north-east extremity of Kennedy Channel. Here a dépôt of 240 rations was landed for the use of travelling parties which were to be afterwards dispatched for the purpose of exploring Petermann Fiord.

Hall Basin being filled with ice, the two ships crossed to the western coast, and entered Lady Franklin Sound, where the Discovery was left in a bay named “Discovery Bay.” This point was reached on the 25th of August.

The Alert had to wait until the 28th before an opportunity offered to proceed northwards. A dépôt of 1000 rations was placed on a hillside 30 feet above the sea, on the northern shore of Lincoln Bay. A cairn, which could be seen from the ice a mile from land, was built a few yards inshore of where these provisions were deposited. They were not afterwards disturbed.

Floeberg Beach was reached on the 1st of September, and here the Alert was fated to remain eleven months. The ice was occasionally driven offshore by gales, but after September 16th the ice never left the shore to the westward of the Alert, although to the eastward a large space of clear water remained between the Alert and Robeson Channel whenever the wind prevailed from the westward.

On the 18th of September the thermometer rose to 36° F.; on the 19th it had fallen to 15° F. The first star was seen on the night of the 20th September.

With the object of exploring the land about Cape Joseph Henry, Lieutenant Aldrich, with Frederick and two seamen, Ayles and Simmons, started on the 22nd, with fourteen dogs dragging two sledges laden with fourteen days provisions. The dogs were allowanced at the rate of 2 lb. of preserved meat daily.

On the 26th a large party started with the object of establishing a dépôt of provisions as far in advance to the north-west as possible. This party consisted of two seven-man sledges and one eleven-man sledge; they were provisioned for twenty days. The sledges were weighted to 200 lb. a man. The eleven-man sledge proved too heavy for the young ice, and another seven-man sledge had to be taken instead. The temperature during the first night fell to 1 degree below zero.

On the 5th of October, Lieutenant Aldrich returned with eleven dogs harnessed to one sledge on which his light gear was secured. Everything else had been left a few miles behind to enable him to reach the ship that night. The dogs, sinking as they frequently did in the soft snow up to their muzzles, had proved to be nearly useless, and but for the help of the men the sledge would have had to be abandoned. Aldrich had succeeded in reaching Cape Joseph Henry, and had spent three days in exploring the neighbourhood. The floebergs and rugged ice piled directly against the precipitous face of the cliffs, with an extremely rough pack in constant motion, effectually prevented sledges being dragged round the cape; but fortunately there was a fair prospect of finding a level road overland to the sea on the other side of the cape in the spring. On the 27th September, Aldrich had succeeded in reaching latitude 82° 48′ N., a higher latitude than had ever before been attained, Parry’s 82° 45′ reached in 1827 having now been beaten.

As regards the use of dogs, Aldrich on this journey formed the opinion that when the snow becomes more than a foot deep, they are not of much value.

The large sledge-party which succeeded in establishing a dépôt of provisions at Cape Joseph Henry returned on September 14th. Out of the party of twenty-one men and three officers, seven men and one officer returned to the ship badly frost-bitten, three of them so severely as to render amputation necessary, the patients being confined to their beds for the greater part of the winter. The frost-bites were attributable entirely to the wet sludgy state of some of the ice that had to be crossed. The temperature ranged between 15° above and 22° below zero. On this journey attention was drawn to the fact that the barrels of the breech-loading fowling-pieces became contracted by the cold to such an extent that the paper cartridges which at a higher temperature fitted well could not be inserted until the outside paper had been stripped off.

The sun disappeared on the 11th October, but for some time afterwards there was twilight during five or six hours of the day. The first sign of an aurora was seen on the 26th October; on the 27th stars were visible at noon. On the 8th November, with a perfectly clear sky, the noon twilight was insufficient to enable one to make out the words in a Times leading article, when the paper was held up facing the south. On the 9th November, Nares writes:—

“To-day the moon reappeared above the southern horizon. Her movements are so important to us that a monthly bulletin is published giving the precise account of when she will appear and when depart. She is truly the ‘presiding goddess’ of the long Arctic night; reflecting to us, during each of her visits, the light of the totally absent sun for ten successive days and nights as she circles round the heavens without ever setting. During some period of her stay full moon occurs, and she displays her greatest beauty. At the time of new moon, when her light would be of the least value, she is absent in southern latitudes. Thanks to her we can never realise what existence would be if totally deprived of light.”

On the 23rd of November mercury became frozen for the first time, at −45° F. The mean temperature of February was −38° F. The mean for the 3rd and 4th March was −69.6°. On the 3rd March two reliable thermometers registered below −73° F., or 105° below the freezing-point of fresh water.

Nothing of special importance occurred during the winter. Christmas was spent cheerfully; a school was started, and a course of lectures and entertainments was given every Thursday evening. There was little but the weather to chronicle.

On the 12th of March, Mr. Egerton and Lieutenant Rawson, accompanied by Petersen and nine dogs, started for the Discovery, the sledge being weighted to 51 lb. per dog. This party had to return on the 15th owing to the illness of Petersen. “He was taken ill on the 2nd March with cramp, and afterwards, being unable to retain any food whatever, nothing could keep him warm, and he became badly frost-bitten. By depriving themselves of their own warm clothing and at great personal risk, the two officers, his only companions, succeeded in restoring circulation. The following day, Petersen being no better, they wisely determined to return with him to the ship. But the gale of the 14th rendering it impossible to travel, and the tent being very cold, they burrowed out a hole in a snow-bank, and with the aid of a spirit-lamp raised the temperature inside to 7°. With a noble disregard of themselves, they succeeded in retaining some slight heat in the man’s body by alternately lying one at a time alongside of him while the other was recovering his warmth by exercise. On the morning of the 15th, the patient being slightly better, and the weather permitting, they started to return to the ship with the sledge lightened to the utmost.

“During the journey of 16 miles over a very rough ground, although frequently very seriously frost-bitten themselves, they succeeded in keeping life in the invalid until they arrived on board. He was badly frost-bitten in the face and feet.

“Notwithstanding the professional ability and incessant care of Dr. Colan, Petersen never recovered from the severe shock which he had received, and eventually expired from exhaustion three months afterwards.”

On the 20th March, Mr. Egerton, with Lieutenant Rawson, accompanied by John Simmons and Michael Regan, one of the crew of the Discovery, started with a sledge drawn by seven dogs for Discovery Bay, the dogs dragging 78 lb. each.

They returned on the 4th April. They arrived at Discovery Bay on the 25th of March, and left again on the 30th. The temperature was very low during this journey, and great difficulties as regards snow and ice had to be overcome.

The great sledge-party to the west and north left the ship on the 3rd of April. It consisted of fifty-three officers and men. Each man in the northern division dragged 230 lb., and those of the western division 242 lb.

“The programme was as follows: Lieutenant Aldrich, assisted by a sledge-crew under the command of Lieutenant Giffard, was to explore the shores of Grant Land towards the north and west, along the coast-line he had discovered the previous autumn. Commander Markham, seconded by Lieutenant Parr, with two boats, and equipped for an absence of seventy days, was to force his way to the northward over the ice, starting off from the land near Cape Joseph Henry; three sledge-crews, under the commands of Dr. Moss and Mr. George White, accompanying them as far as their provisions would allow.”

On the 20th April, Lieutenants Beaumont and Rawson, and Dr. Coppinger, with twenty-one men dragging four sledges weighted to 218 lb. a man, started for the north coast of Greenland.

On the 25th of May, Captain Nares decided to go to Cape Joseph Henry to obtain a view of the northern ice from the lofty mountains in the locality. He arrived there on the 29th, and ascended Mount Julia, the highest peak near the sea, which rises to an elevation of not less than 2000 feet. The atmosphere being very clear, an extensive view was obtained. The hills of Greenland, 120 miles distant, were plainly seen in the neighbourhood of Cape Britannia. He was satisfied that no land exists to the north within 50 miles of Cape Joseph Henry, and no high land within 80 miles. In his narrative of this journey he writes:—

“Whether or not land exists within the 360 miles which stretch from the limit of our view to the northern axis of the globe is, so far as sledge-travelling is concerned, immaterial. Sixty miles of such pack as we now know to extend north of Cape Joseph Henry is an insuperable obstacle to travelling in that direction with our present appliances; and I unhesitatingly affirm that it is impracticable to reach the North Pole by the Smith Sound route.”

Let us now follow the northern sledge-party which left the Alert on 3rd April 1876. The dépôt of provisions at Cape Joseph Henry was reached on 10th April, and the remainder of that day was employed in bringing the provisions off to the sledges, which were left on the ice. Up to this point the northern and western parties had travelled together. Next day they separated, and the two supporting sledges returned to the ship.

The ice over which the northern party had to travel was of an extremely rugged character. Roads had frequently to be made before the sledges could be dragged forwards. To make matters worse, the snow in many places had drifted to such a depth that the men were frequently floundering in it up to their waists. Little mention is made of snow-shoes throughout the expedition, and here undoubtedly they would have been of great service. At first they attempted to console themselves with the idea that the irregular and broken sea of ice was only caused by the proximity to the land, and that they should afterwards meet with smooth level floes, on which they should advance rapidly. The belts of hummocks that separated the floes varied from 20 yards to half a mile in breadth, and were from 15 to 50 feet in height. In order to keep the sun as much as possible at their backs, they travelled between noon and midnight. During the first week the temperature was usually about 30° below zero, and little sleep could be obtained. On the 14th one of the crew complained of pains in his ankles and knees. Although ignorant of the fact, this was the first appearance of the dreaded scurvy. During the 15th and 16th they were confined to tent by a gale, with a temperature of 67° below freezing-point. On the 17th another of the crew was found suffering from swollen and puffy knee-joints.

On the 19th, Markham decided to abandon the larger boat. This boat had always been regarded as an incubus by the party, and every one was well pleased to get rid of it. Even then, in order to advance the three sledges, the road had to be frequently walked over five times. On this day, the 19th, a third man fell ill. On the 24th the 83rd parallel of latitude was crossed. Other two of the party exhibited symptoms of scurvy on the 27th. The temperature on the 28th rose to 2°, the first day the thermometer registered above zero. On the 2nd of May Markham became convinced that his invalids were suffering from scurvy. Great as were the natural difficulties which surrounded him, this was rightly regarded as the most formidable of all obstacles to their advance that could possibly be imagined. On the 7th May three of the invalids had to be carried on the sledge, and the other two could scarcely walk. On the 10th, Markham arrived at the determination of dragging the sledges no farther in a northerly direction. He decided to give the invalids two days’ rest. In order to insure being within 400 miles of the North Pole, the whole of the party, with the exception of the invalids and two men to look after them, started on the 12th to the northward, carrying with them the sextant, artificial horizon, and all their colours and banners. Shortly before noon, the artificial horizon was set up, and the flags and sledge-standards displayed. The latitude was found to be 83° 20′ 26″ N., or 399½ miles from the North Pole. The announcement of the position was received with three cheers, with one more for Captain Nares; then all sang the “Union Jack of Old England,” winding up, like loyal subjects, with “God Save the Queen.”

The return journey was then commenced. Day by day their strength diminished. Gradually, but surely, the men, one after the other, began to feel the cruel grasp of the scurvy, as they struggled manfully on, dragging their helpless companions. Towards the end of May, although the temperature of the outside air was below the freezing-point, the sun was so powerful that it would raise the temperature inside the tent to as much as 70° or 80°. Snow fell heavily during the greater part of the return journey, and fogs were very prevalent. On the 19th of May ominous symptoms of a disruption of the pack were seen. A crack in some ice had opened considerably. On the 25th the 83rd parallel of latitude was recrossed.

The condition of the party was so critical on the 27th that it became only too painfully evident that, to insure their reaching the land alive, the sledge must be considerably lightened in order to admit of a more rapid advance. The state of the party was on that day as follows: five men were in a very precarious condition, utterly unable to move, and consequently had to be carried on the sledges; five others nearly as bad, but who nobly persisted in hobbling after the sledges, which they could just manage to accomplish, for, as the sledges had to be advanced one by one, it gave them plenty of time to perform the distance; whilst three others exhibited all the premonitory scorbutic symptoms. Thus only the two officers and two men could be considered as effective!

“I therefore,” writes Markham, “decided to abandon the remaining boat, which would materially lessen the load to be dragged.”

On the 29th May the tents were pitched close to the boat that they abandoned on their outward journey. It was exactly in the same condition as when left.

On the 31st, whilst crossing some young ice between two heavy floes, one of the sledges broke through, and it was with difficulty that it was dragged out again.

On the 5th of June they reached land. Two days later, Lieutenant Parr started on an arduous march to the ship, in order to obtain assistance. Next day one of the invalids, George Porter, died. On the 9th a dog-sledge arrived from the ship, and on the following day a larger party, headed by Captain Nares, arrived. The ship was reached at 1.30 a.m. on the 14th of June. Out of the original party of fifteen men, three only were capable of dragging the sledge, the remaining eleven having to be carried alongside the ship on the relief-sledges.

Commander Markham on his return reported: “I feel it impossible for my pen to depict with accuracy, and yet be not accused of exaggeration, the numerous drawbacks that impeded our progress. One point, however, in my opinion is most definitely settled, and that is, the utter impracticability of reaching the North Pole over the floe in this locality; and in this opinion my able colleague, Lieutenant Parr, entirely concurs. I am convinced that with the very lightest equipped sledges, carrying no boats, and with all the resources of the ship concentrated in the one direction, and also supposing that perfect health might be maintained, the latitude attained by the party I had the honour and pleasure of commanding would not be exceeded by many miles, certainly not by a degree.”

To this Nares added: “In this I most fully concur. Markham’s journey, coupled with the experience gained by Sir Edward Parry in the summer of 1827, and more recently the memorable retreat of Lieutenant Weyprecht and his companions after having abandoned the Tegetthoff off the coast of Franz-Josef Land, proves that a lengthened journey over the Polar pack-ice with a sledge-party equipped with a boat fit for navigable purposes is impracticable at any season of the year.”

It was left for Nansen and Peary to prove that Nares and Markham were wrong.

We will now follow the sledge-party to the west. After parting company with Markham on the 11th of April, Aldrich and Giffard with their two sledges crossed Feilden Peninsula—the watershed of which was estimated to be 500 feet above the sea-level. They reached the shore of James Ross Bay on the 15th. Four hares were shot and traces of ptarmigan seen. These hares were the only game obtained. Crossing the bay, Crozier Island was visited on the 17th. On the 19th, the Parry Peninsula, 2½ miles in breadth, was crossed, and the shore of Clements Markham Inlet reached. On the 22nd, Cape Colan, the west point of the inlet, was arrived at, and a dépôt of provisions left for the return journey.

On the 25th, Giffard and his crew, after completing the other sledge to forty-four days’ provisions, parted company, to return to the Alert.

For the next seven days, when Cape Columbia was reached, Aldrich’s sledge being fully laden, the daily advance was extremely slow, as usual in similar journeys, and the soft snow entailed very severe labour. On the 30th April, Aldrich wrote: “The Sergeant-Major has just shown me a very ugly-looking red patch or blotch just above the ankle; the limb is slightly swollen.” This was a sign of scurvy, which was not suspected for some time afterwards. Cape Aldrich, where a dépôt of provisions was left, was reached on 1st May. Cape Columbia, the most northern point attained, was also reached on 1st May. The latitude was found to be 83° 7′ N. On the 8th of May another dépôt was formed; and on the 10th, Aldrich writes: “The men are nearly all suffering a great deal with their unfortunate legs, which appear to get worse every day. This we all feel to be very disappointing, as it affects the journey, and although stiff limbs were expected, every one thought the stiffness would wear off in time.” Milne Bay was crossed on the 14th, and the camp was pitched in Yelverton Bay on the 15th. On the 18th May, Aldrich decided to return. Provisions were running short, and the condition of his crew was becoming worse. He had then reached longitude 85° 33′ W. On the homeward journey the attack of scurvy gradually became more pronounced, and the fast-increasing weakness of the men rendered the daily distance accomplished so short that the provisions placed in dépôt on the passage out were insufficient to last them, on full allowance, while travelling from one dépôt to another.

On the 5th of June they passed Cape Columbia on their return; and on the 7th the dreaded word “scurvy” was used for the first time. The dépôt at Cape Colan was reached on the 11th. On the 13th, Aldrich writes: “Got on very fairly till eight o’clock, when Good nearly fainted. There appears to be utter inability to get breath, no pain, and no difficulty to speak of in breathing when at rest. The least exertion brings it on.”

On the 20th, when it was becoming evident that they could not reach the ship without assistance, they met a party of three who had been sent to their relief. On the 23rd other two came to their assistance; and on the 25th a party of officers with Captain Nares hurried them to the ship.

The only other sledge-journey of importance was that along the Greenland coast, in charge of Lieutenant Beaumont. Accompanied by Dr. Coppinger and sixteen men dragging two sledges, he started from the Discovery on the 6th of April for Floeberg Beach, intending to make the Alert his base for the exploration. The Alert was reached on the 16th, and after four days’ rest, Beaumont with Rawson, Coppinger, and twenty-one men, dragging four sledges weighted to 218 lb. per man, started for Repulse Harbour, Greenland. Robeson Channel was crossed without much difficulty, but a great mass of hummocks had to be cut through at the entrance to Repulse Harbour. Here the provisions were redistributed on three sledges, a cairn built, and a site selected for the dépôt to be left for the return journey.

They started northward on the 27th April, and as it had been impressed upon Beaumont that it was necessary to keep to the land so as to prevent leaving an impassable barrier in the rear in the event of the ice breaking up, he struggled on along steep snow-slopes where roads had to be cut, rather than take to the comparatively level floes. At Black Horn Cliffs, however, it was found impossible to keep to the land; they therefore took to the ice, but again returned to the land a short distance beyond the cliffs. On the 4th of May a dépôt was formed for the return journey, and Coppinger left on this date. On the 6th of May one of the crew complained of stiffness in the legs, and next day when he was examined by Beaumont the latter suspected scurvy. On the 10th he decided that Lieutenant Rawson, with his party, should take this man back, and on arrival at Repulse Harbour either cross over to the Alert or go on to Polaris Bay.

On the 10th of May, Beaumont ascended Mount Wyatt, 2050 feet, from which he saw that the line of hummocks stretched for 10 or 12 miles in the direction of Mount Hooker, and then turned to the northward, and ran straight for the west end of the distant land. All to the eastward of this boundary was smooth and level, while to the westward lay the Polar pack, with its floes and chains of hummocks.

A dépôt was left at Cape Bryant, and then Beaumont made for Cape Fulford, which is the north extremity of the line of cliffs on the west side of St. George’s Fiord. The road across the mouth of the fiord was very good, and, arrived at Dragon Point, they opened out another wide reach of bays and fiords. Beaumont was anxious to reach Mount Hooker, from which he expected to see not only the islands to the north, but get the best idea of the trend of the mainland; he encountered, however, soft snow which varied from 2 to 4½ feet in depth: they had “literally to climb out of the holes made by each foot in succession.” Why snow-shoes were not used seems beyond comprehension. Beaumont writes: “The shore for which we were making did not seem more than 2 miles off, so I went ahead to see if the travelling was better under the cliffs. I got about a mile and a half ahead of the sledge in three hours, and then gave it up. I was nearly done; so I hailed them to go to lunch, but would rather have missed three meals than gone back all that distance.” The men struggled on, sometimes dragging the sledge on their hands and knees to relieve their aching legs, or hauling her ahead with a long rope and standing pulls.

On the 19th of May, Beaumont writes: “Nobody will ever believe what hard work this becomes on the fourth day; but this may give them some idea of it. When halted for lunch, two of the men crawled for 200 yards on their hands and knees, rather than walk unnecessarily through this awful snow.” This snow was too much for them: on the 22nd May they started on the return journey without having reached Mount Hooker. A record was left in a cairn on the north end of Reef Island. At Dragon Point a chart and another record were left in a cairn, and Beaumont and Alexander Gray set off to ascend the highest mountain in the neighbourhood. The elevation was 3700 feet and the view was magnificent, but Beaumont did not see what he wanted:—“The Mount Hooker Land hid the islands, and the Cape Buttress channel was shut in. Mount Albert I could see was a separate island. Cape Britannia, as far as could be seen, had very high land far back. Stephenson Land was quite hidden behind Mount Hooker Land, which latter towards Cape Buttress extended very far back to the eastward. Cape Buttress overlapped it, but inside and above the cape could be seen either a hummocky floe or a mer de glace; it looked like a floe, but its skyline had a perceptible curve in it—a haze hung over this part. By the look of the land and shore, a passage seemed to connect St. George’s Fiord with St. Andrew’s Bay. St. George’s Fiord could be traced continuing to the south, after making a slight bend to the west. The view inland in that direction stretched away without a break as far as the eye could reach, all much about the same elevation. Mount Punch stood out from most of the other mountains, and Grant’s Land was distinctly visible, the United States’ range being very conspicuous.”

After a short rest, they once more started, making for Cape Fulford. Heavy snowfalls with thick fogs retarded their advance, and on the 28th of May a dépôt was formed with 200 lb. of articles which they could dispense with. With the exception of Beaumont and Gray, all the party were suffering from scurvy, and steadily getting worse. Soon after this, Paul fell down quite powerless, and had to be carried on the sledge; and on the 7th June another man had to be placed beside him. Repulse Harbour was reached on the 10th of June. It was decided to cross over to the Alert, but after travelling about 1 mile over the ice they came to water, and had to return and make their way to Polaris Bay, 40 miles off. Next march Dobing broke down, and Jones felt so bad he did not think he could walk much longer. They toiled painfully through McCormick Pass, and reached Newman Bay. On the 22nd, Craig and Dobing almost dragged themselves along, their breath failing entirely at every 10 yards. On the 23rd it became necessary to carry both Dobing and Craig. The last journey under such terrible conditions may be described in Beaumont’s words: “On the evening of the 24th we started for our last journey with the sledge, as I thought; for finding that Jones and Gray were scarcely able to pull, I had determined to reach the shore at the plain, pitch the tent, and walk over by myself to Polaris Bay to see if there was any one there to help us; if not, come back, and sending Jones and Gray, who could still walk, to the dépôt, remain with the sick and get them on as best I could. But I thank God it did not come to this, for as we were plodding along the now water-sodden floe towards the shore, I saw what turned out to be a dog-sledge and three men, and soon after had the pleasure of shaking hands with Lieutenant Rawson and Dr. Coppinger. Words cannot express the pleasure, relief, and gratitude we all felt at this timely meeting.”

Newman Bay dépôt was reached next day. Hans, who arrived with Rawson and Coppinger, made good use of his skill as a driver. Both Paul and Jenkins were now in a critical condition, so it was decided on the 28th that Dr. Coppinger and Hans, with the two men on the eight-man sledge drawn by the dogs, should start for the Polaris Bay dépôt. Paul, however, gradually grew weaker, and died on the afternoon of the 29th.

It will be convenient here to go back to Rawson’s journey to Polaris Bay after leaving Beaumont. Owing to two more of his crew breaking down, leaving only himself and one man, E. Rayner, strong enough to drag the sledge, they did not succeed in reaching Polaris Bay till the 3rd of June, after a most arduous journey on reduced rations, and during several days of which Rawson was himself so badly affected with snow-blindness that he had to pull the sledge while blindfold. James Hand expired a few hours after their arrival at Polaris Bay.

On the 8th August, Beaumont with his companions started on their perilous journey across Hall’s Basin to Discovery Bay. After two hours on the ice, they came to a large space of water 3 miles broad, and launched their boat, which had previously been taken across from the Discovery. They had repeatedly to draw the boat on the ice, haul it on their sledge till water was again met, and then launch. While crossing they found themselves drifting south, and were in the greatest danger of being swept into Kennedy Channel; fortunately, a wind from the south-east set in, and they eventually reached land between Cape Lieber and Cape Baird on the 12th, and arrived at Discovery Bay on 14th August.

After the return of the northern and western sledge-parties so completely broken down, Captain Nares determined to give up all further exploration, and to proceed to the southward with both ships as soon as the ice should break up and release them. On the 31st July the Alert succeeded in escaping from the ice at Floeberg Beach, and after meeting many difficulties reached Discovery Bay on 12th August.

Nares writes: “On the 16th, the weather still remaining distressingly fine and calm, an excursion was made to the coal-beds near Cape Murchison. This deposit of coal, or, more correctly, lignite, is exposed in a ravine near Watercourse Bay, for a distance of over 200 yards. At its greatest exposure the thickness of the seam is 25 feet, but we had no means of ascertaining how much deeper it descended below the level of the stream. Above the coal are beds of shale and sandstones. The coal was pronounced after trial by our engineers to be equal to the best Welsh. The seam where exposed is at an elevation of about 200 feet above the sea-level, and at a distance of about a mile from the shore of Watercourse Bay, in Robeson Channel. Unfortunately, very little shelter is obtainable for a large vessel among the small floebergs stranded in this indentation. The distance between the coal-seam and Discovery Bay is about 4 miles, and the track leads over the brow of a hill about 800 feet high.

“A short distance above the quarry, in a narrow part of the ravine where a large quantity of snow, collected in a shaded part, remains unmelted during the summer, the mountain torrent has melted away a watercourse for itself through the snow-bank. In winter this ice grotto, with a trifling expense of labour, could be readily formed into a convenient Arctic residence.”

On the 18th August, Captain Stephenson deposited an account of their proceedings in a cairn which had been constructed out of the empty preserved meat-tins, refilled with gravel. A post-office box was placed in the centre of the pile.

On the 20th August the ice opened sufficiently to allow the two ships to leave for the south. At Cape Isabella they found a package of letters and newspapers left there by Sir Allen Young a few weeks previously.

Nares writes: “After our long sojourn within the Polar ice it was a strange transition to feel the ship rise and fall once more on the ‘north water’ of Baffin’s Bay, and to look astern and see Cape Isabella, one of the massive portals of Smith Sound, fading away in an obscurity of snow and midnight darkness; whilst an ice-blink stretching across the northern horizon reminded us forcibly of the perils, dangers, and anxieties that we had contended against for so many months.

“In comparing the voyage of the Polaris and that of the Alert and Discovery, it is evident that the navigation of the ice which is to be met with every year in Kane Sea is entirely dependent on the westerly winds. Both in 1875 and 1876 we met navigable water off Cape Victoria in latitude 79° 12′ with only a narrow pack 15 miles in breadth between it and Grinnell Land, which a westerly wind of a few hours’ duration would certainly have driven to the eastward. The same wind would have opened a channel along the shore, and any vessel waiting her opportunity at Payer Harbour could under those circumstances have passed up the channel with as little difficulty as the Polaris experienced in 1871.

“The quantity of one season’s ice met with in the bays on the south-east coast of Grinnell Land in 1876 proves that on the final setting in of the frost, after we passed north in 1875, the pack had been driven from the shore, leaving a navigable channel along the land. Nevertheless, I do not recommend future navigators who wish to obtain a high northern latitude by this route to wait for such a favourable occurrence. Certainly no one could have made a passage through the ice in 1876 before the 10th September by doing so. At that date the season had advanced so far that the attainment of sheltered winter-quarters would have been extremely problematical.”

The two ships arrived at Portsmouth Harbour on the 2nd November.

This expedition, sent out regardless of expense, achieved very much less than had been anticipated. The chief cause of failure was the outbreak of scurvy, which completely paralysed the undertaking. The real cause of the outbreak was never discovered, but it was probably due to the want of fresh meat. The methods adopted to reach a high latitude were practically identical with those of Parry used half a century before. After all their experience, both Markham and Nares emphatically declared their conviction that it was impossible under any circumstances for a sledge-party, even without boats, and with all possible resources, to reach 1 degree beyond that reached by the expedition. It was an American naval officer, Commander Peary, who proved in 1906 that a point nearly 4 degrees farther north could be attained over the same sea; and in 1909, starting from the coast a little to the west of his previous route, he succeeded in reaching the Pole itself.