1 The strict meaning of this term, given by Mohammed (“the true religion with God is Islam”; Sura, iii, 17), is “submission”—such being the attitude demanded by the Prophet. “Moslem” or “Muslim” means one who accepts Islam. Koran means strictly, not “book,” but “reading” or recitation. ↑
2 Rodwell’s tr. of the Koran, ed. 1861, pref. p. xv. ↑
3 Sale, Preliminary Discourse to tr. of the Koran, ed. 1833, i, 42; Muir’s Life of Mohammad, ed. Weir, 1912, p. 78. Cp. Freeman, History and Conquests of the Saracens, 1856, p. 35. The late Prof. Palmer, in introd. to his tr. of the Koran (Sacred Books of the East series), i, p. xv, says that “By far the greater number had ceased to believe in anything at all”; but this is an extravagance, confuted by himself in other passages—e.g. p. xi. ↑
4 These generalizations are always matched, and cancelled, by others from the same sources. Thus Prof. D. B. Macdonald writes of “the always flighty and skeptical Arabs,” and, a few pages later, of the God-fearing fatalism “of all Muslim thought, the faith to which the Semite ever returns in the end.” Development of Muslim Theology, etc. (in “Semitic Series”), New York, 1903, pp. 122, 126. ↑
5 The word means either convert or pervert; in Heb. and Syr. “heretic”; in Arabic, “orthodox.” It must not be confounded with Hanyfite, the name of an orthodox sect, founded by one Hanyfa. ↑
6 See Rodwell’s tr. of the Koran, ed. 1861, pref. pp. xvi, xvii; and Sura, xvi (lxxiii in Rodwell’s chron. arrangement), v. 121, p. 252, note 2. ↑
7 Sprenger, Das Leben und die Lehre des Mohammad, 1861–65, i, 83 sq. Cp. p. 60 sq. ↑
8 Rodwell, p. 497, note to Sura iii (xcvii) 19; and pref. p. xvi; Caussin de Perceval, Essai sur l’histoire des Arabes avant l’Islamisme, 1847, i, 321–26; Nicholson, Lit. Hist. of the Arabs, pp. 69, 149. “To the great mass of the citizens of Mecca the new doctrine was simply the Hanyfism to which they had become accustomed; and they did not at first trouble themselves at all about the matter.” Palmer, introd. to tr. of Koran, i, p. xxiv. Cp. Sprenger, as cited, i, 46–60, 65. ↑
9 The word Hanyf or Hanif recurs in Sura ii, 129; iii, 60, 89; iv, 124; vi, 79, 162; x, 105, xvi, 121; xxii, 32; xxx, 29. Cp. H. Derenbourg, La science des religions et l’Islamisme, 1886, pp. 42–43. Palmer’s translation, marred as it unfortunately is by slanginess, is on such points specially trustworthy. Rodwell’s does not always indicate the use of the word Hanyf; but the German version of Ullmann, the French of Kanimirski, and Sale’s, do not indicate it at all. Sprenger (p. 43) derives the Hanyfs from Essenes who had almost lost all knowledge of the Bible. Cp. p. 67. Prof. Macdonald writes that the word “is of very doubtful derivation. But we have evidence from heathen Arab poetry that these Hanifs were regarded as much the same as Christian monks, and that the term hanif was used as a synonym for rahib, monk.” Work cited, p. 125. ↑
10 Sprenger, as cited, p. 13. ↑
11 Cp. Sale’s Prelim. Discourse, as cited, i, 38; and Palmer, introd. p. xv; and Nicholson, pp. 139–40. ↑
12 Al Mostaraf, cited by Pococke, Specimen Histor. Arab. p. 136; Sale, Prelim. Disc. as cited, p. 45. ↑
13 Cp. Nicholson, pp. 155–56 and refs. ↑
14 Sale, as cited, pp. 39–41. ↑
15 Palmer, introd. to his Haroun Alraschid, 1882, p. 14. Cp. Derenbourg, La science des religions et l’Islamisme, p. 44, controverting Kuenen. ↑
16 Hibbert Lectures, On National and Universal Religions, ed. 1901, p. 21 and Note II. ↑
18 Nicholson, Lit. Hist. of the Arabs, p. 145. ↑
19 Rodwell, note to Sura xcvi (R. i), 10. ↑
20 Sprenger estimates that at his death the number really converted to his doctrine did not exceed a thousand. Cp. Nicholson, pp. 153–58. ↑
21 Renan ascribes the idea wholly to Omar. Études d’histoire et de critique, ed. 1862, p. 250. The faithful have preserved a sly saying that “Omar was many a time of a certain opinion, and the Koran was then revealed accordingly.” Nöldeko, Enc. Brit. art. on Koran, in Sketches from Eastern History, 1892, p. 28. On the other hand, Sedillot decides (Histoire des Arabes, 1854. p. 60) that “in Mohammed it is the political idea that dominates.” So Nicholson (p. 169): “At Medina the days of pure religious enthusiasm have passed away for ever, and the prophet is overshadowed by the statesman.” Cp. pp. 173, 175. ↑
22 On the measure of racial unity set up by Abyssinian attacks as well as by the pretensions of the Byzantine and Persian empires, see Sedillot, pp. 30, 38. Cp. Van Vloten, Recherches sur la domination arabe, Amsterdam, 1894. pp. 1–4. 7. ↑
23 Professor Stanilas Guyard, La Civilisation Musulmane, 1884, p. 22. ↑
24 Cp. Renan, Études, pp. 257–66; Hauri, Der Islam in seinem Einfluss auf das Leben seiner Bekenner, 1882, pp. 64–65; Nicholson, p. 235. It was at Medina that a strict Mohammedanism first arose. ↑
25 Nicholson, pp. 178–79, and ref. ↑
27 Cp. Montesquieu, Grandeur et décadence des Romains, ch. 22. ↑
30 Van Vloten, p. 70 and passim. ↑
31 Prof. Guyard, as cited, pp. 16, 51; C. E. Oelsner, Des effets de la religion de Mohammed, etc., 1810, p. 130. ↑
32 Guyard, p. 21; Palmer, Haroun Alraschid, introd. p. 19. ↑
33 The alleged destruction of the library of Alexandria by Omar is probably a myth, arising out of a story of Omar’s causing some Persian books to be thrown into the water. See Prof. Bury’s notes in his ed. of Gibbon, v, 452–54. Cp. Oelsner, as cited, pp. 142–43. ↑
34 Sura, vi, 25, 29; xix, 67; xxvii, 68–70; liv, 2; lxxxiii, 10–13. According to lviii, 28, however, some polytheists denied the future state. ↑
35 Cp. Renan, Études d’histoire et de critique, pp. 232–34. ↑
37 Id. p. 235. Renan and Sprenger conflict on this point, the former having regard, apparently, to the bulk of the poetry, the latter to parts of it. ↑
38 Sedillot, p. 39. One of these was Zaid. Nicholson, p. 149. ↑
39 See the passage (Sura ii) cited with praise by the sympathetic Mr. Bosworth Smith in his Mohammed and Mohammedanism, 2nd ed. p. 181; where also delighted praise is given to the “description of Infidelity” in Sura xxiv, 39–40. The “infidels” in question were simply non-Moslems. ↑
40 The Flight (of the Prophet to Medina from Mecca, in 622), from which begins the Mohammedan era. ↑
42 Weil, Geschichte der Chalifen, ii, 261–64; Dugat, Histoire des philosophes et des théologiens Mussulmans, 1878, pp. 48–55; H. Steiner, Die Mu`taziliten, oder die Freidenker im Islam, 1865, pp. 49–50; Guyard, p. 36; Sale, p. 161 (sec. viii); Nicholson, p. 222 sq. The term Motazila broadly means “dissenter,” or “belonging to a sect.” ↑
44 Palmer, Introd. to Haroun Alraschid, p. 14. ↑
45 As to the Persian influence on Arab thought, cp. A. Müller, Der Islam, i, 469; Palmer, as last cited; Weil, Geschichte der Chalifen, ii, 114 ff.; Nicholson, p. 220; Van Vloten, Recherches sur la domination arabe, p. 43. Van Vloten’s treatise is a lucid sketch of the socio-political conditions set up in Persia by the Arab conquest. ↑
47 G. Dugat, Histoire des philosophes et des théologiens Mussulmans, p. 44; Sale, pp. 161, 174–78. ↑
48 Dugat, p. 55; Steiner, p. 4; Sale, p. 162. ↑
49 “Motazilism represents in Islam a Protestantism of the shade of Schleiermacher” (Renan, Averroès et l’Averroïsme, 3e ed. p. 104). Cp. Syed Ameer Ali, Crit. Exam. of Life of Mohammed, pp. 300–308; Sale, p. 161. ↑
50 Dugat, pp. 28, 44; Guyard, p. 36; Steiner, pp. 24–25; Renan, Averroès, p. 101. The Kadarites, as Sale notes (pp. 164–65), are really an older group than the Motazilites, so-called, their founder having rejected predestination before Wasil did. Kuenen (Hibbert Lect. p. 47) writes as if all the Motazilites were maintained of freewill, but they varied. See Prof. Macdonald, as cited, p. 135 sq. ↑
52 For a view of the various schools of Sifatites see Sale, pp. 166–74. ↑
53 Guyard, pp. 37–38; G. D. Osborn, The Khalifs of Baghdad, 1878, p. 134. ↑
54 Steiner, p. 16. Major Osborn (work cited, p. 136) attributes their rise to the influence of Eastern Christianity, but gives no proof. ↑
55 Guyard, p. 40. Cp. Sale, p. 176; Van Vloten, p. 43. ↑
56 Dugat, p. 34. Thus the orthodox sect of Hanyfites were called by one writer followers of reason, since they relied rather on their judgment than on tradition. ↑
57 Steiner, p. 5; Nicholson, p. 370. ↑
58 Steiner, pp. 5, 9, 88–89; Sale, p. 161; Macdonald, p. 140. ↑
59 Sedillot, Hist. des Arabes, p. 335; Prof. A. Müller, Der Islam (in Oncken’s series), i, 470; Ueberweg, i, 402. ↑
60 Ueberweg, p. 403; Weil, Gesch. der Chalifen, ii, 281. ↑
61 For an orthodox account of the beginnings of freethinking (called zendēkism) see Weil, ii, 214. Cp. p. 261; also Tabari’s Chronicle, pt. v, ch. xcvii; and Renan, Averroès, p. 103. Already, among the Ommayade Khalifs, Yezid III held the Motazilite tenet of freewill. Weil, p. 260. ↑
62 Nicholson, pp. 372, 375. The name zendēk (otherwise spelt zindiq) seems to have originally meant a Manichæan. Browne, Literary History of Persia, ii (1906), 295; Nicholson, p. 375 and ref. Macdonald, p. 134, thinks it literally meant “initiate.” ↑
63 Steiner, p. 8. An association called “Brethren of Purity” or “Sincere Brethren” seem to have carried Motazilism far, though they aimed at reconciling philosophy with orthodoxy. They were in effect the encyclopedists of Arab science. Ueberweg, i, 411; Nicholson, p. 370 sq. See Dr. F. Dieterici, Die Naturanschauung und Naturphilosophie der Araber im 10ten Jahrhundert, aus den schriften der lautern Brüder, 1861, Vorrede, p. viii, and Flügel, as there cited. Flügel dates the writings of the Brethren about 970; but the association presumably existed earlier. Cp. Renan, Averroès, p. 104; and S. Lane-Poole’s Studies in a Mosque, 1893, ch. vi, as to their performance. Prof. Macdonald is disposed to regard them as “part of the great Fatimid propaganda which honeycombed the ground everywhere under the Sunnite Abassids,” but admits that the Fatimid movement is “the great mystery of Muslim history” (pp. 165–70). ↑
65 He made five pilgrimages to Mecca, and died on the last, thus attaining to sainthood. ↑
66 Weil, Gesch. der Chalifen, ii, 81; Dugat, pp. 59–61; A. Müller, Der Islam, i. 470; Macdonald, p. 134. In Mansour’s reign was born Al Allaf, “Sheikh of the Motazilites.” ↑
67 Dugat, p. 62. The Hâyetians, who had Unitarian Christian leanings, also held by metempsychosis. Sale, p. 163. ↑
68 Nicholson, p. 371 and refs. ↑
69 Dugat, p. 71. He persecuted Zendēks in general. Nicholson, pp. 373–74. ↑
70 Id. p. 72; Sale, pp. 184–85; Tabari’s Chronicle, pt. v, ch. xcvii, Zotenberg’s tr. 1874, iv, 447–53. Tabari notes (p. 448) that all the Moslem theologians agree in thinking zendēkism much worse than any of the false religions, since it rejects all and denies God as well as the Prophet. ↑
71 Cp. Steiner, pp. 55 sq., 66 sq.; Ueberweg, Hist. of Philos., i, 405. ↑
72 Dugat, p. 76. See Sale, pp. 82–83, 162–63, as to the champions of this principle. ↑
73 Sale, p. 83; Macdonald, p. 150. ↑
74 Dugat, p. 79; Osborn, The Khalifs of Baghdad, p. 195. ↑
75 Palmer, Haroun Alraschid, p. 82. They were really theists. ↑
76 Weil, Geschichte der Chalifen, ii, 215, 261, 280; A. Müller, Der Islam, pp. 514–15. “It was believed that he was at heart a zindiq.” Nicholson, p. 368. ↑
78 Prof. Macdonald, as cited, p. 154. ↑
80 See extract by Major Osborn, Khalifs, p. 250. ↑
82 Macdonald, pp. 154–58, 167. ↑
83 Nicholson, pp. 358–59. He it was who first caused to be measured a degree of the earth’s surface. The attempt was duly denounced as atheistic by a leading theologian, Takyuddin. Montucla, Hist. des Mathématiques, éd. Lalande, i, 355 sq.; Draper, Conflict of Religion and Science, p. 109. ↑
84 A. Müller, Der Islam, i, 509 sq.; Weil, Gesch. der Chalifen, ii, 280 ff. ↑
85 Dugat, pp. 105–11; Sale, p. 82. Apart from this one issue, general tolerance seems to have prevailed. Osborn, Khalifs, p. 265. ↑
86 Dugat, p. 112; Steiner, p. 79. According to Abulfaragius, Motawakkel had the merit of leaving men free to believe what they would as to the creation of the Koran. Sale, p. 82. ↑
87 A good analysis is given by Dugat, pp. 337–48. ↑
88 The whole of Aristotle, except, apparently, the Politics, had been translated in the time of the philosopher Avicenna (fl. 1000). ↑
89 Macdonald, pp. 200, 205–206. ↑
90 Steiner, Die Mu’taziliten, pp. 10–11, following Gazzali (Al Gazel); Weil, Gesch. der Chalifen, iii, 72. ↑
91 Guyard, pp. 41–42; Renan, Averroès, pp. 104–5; Macdonald, p. 186 sq. The cultivators of Kalâm were called Motecallemîn. ↑
92 Ueberweg, i, 405, 414; Steiner, p. 11; Whewell, Hist. of the Inductive Sciences, 3rd ed. i, 193–94. Compare the laudatory account of Al Gazzali by Prof. Macdonald (pt. iii, ch. iv), who pronounces him “certainly the most sympathetic figure in the history of Islam” (p. 215). ↑
93 Hence, among other things, a check on the practice of anatomy, religious feeling being opposed to it under Islam as under Christianity. Dugat, pp. 62–63. ↑
95 Browne, Literary History of Persia, ii (1906), 290, 293; R. A. Nicholson, Literary History of the Arabs, 1907, p. 318. ↑
96 Browne, as cited, p. 292. Cp. Von Kremer, Culturgeschichte des Orients, 1875–77, ii, 386–95; Macdonald, p. 199. ↑
97 Dugat, p. 167; Weil, iii, 72. ↑
100 The Diwan of Abu’l-Ala, by Henry Baerlein, 1908, st. 36. Cp. 1, 37, 41, 42, 53, 81, 86, 94, and the extracts given by Nicholson, pp. 316–23. ↑
102 Decline and Fall, ch. lvii. Bohn ed. vi, 382, and note. Cp. E. H. Whinfield, The Quatrains of Omar Khayyám, 1882, p. 4. ↑
103 See the preface to Fitzgerald’s translation of the Rubáiyát. ↑
104 In one quatrain, of doubtful authenticity, is the line “Khayyám, who longtime stitched the tents of learning” (Whinfield, xxxviii), which excludes the idea of literal handicraft. ↑
105 J. K. M. Shirazi, Life of Omar Al-Khayyámi, ed. 1895, pp. 30–41. ↑
114 Cited in introd. to Dole’s variorum ed. of the Rubáiyát, 1896, i, p. xix. Cp. Macdonald, p. 199. ↑
“Dost thou desire to taste eternal bliss?
Vex thine own heart, but never vex another.” (Whinfield, vi.)
“Seek not the Kaaba, rather seek a heart.” (Id. vii.)
This note is often repeated. E.g. xxxii, li. ↑
116 See in the very competent translation of Mrs. H. M. Cadell (who remarked that “Fitzgerald has rather written a poem upon Omar than translated him”), quatrains 12, 14, 15, 20, 28, 29, 42, 45, 48, 51d, 85, 88b, 133, 141, 143. etc.; in the artistically turned version of Mr. A. H. Talbot, which follows very faithfully the literal prose translation of Mr. Heron-Allen, Nos. 1, 3, 15, 18, 19, 24, 33, 41, 45, 59, 72, 91, 115, 123, 148; and in Whinfield’s version, Nos. 10, 25, 32, 41, 45, 46, 62, 68, 77, 84, 87, 104, 105, 111, 113, 118, 142, 144, 148, 151, 157, 161, 179, 195, 200, 201, 203, 216. ↑
117 Shirazi, pp. 102–108. Early in the thirteenth century he was denounced by a Sufi mystic as an “unhappy philosopher, atheist, and materialist.” Browne, Lit. Hist. of Persia, ii, 250. Abu’l-Ala, of course, was similarly denounced. ↑
118 Whinfield, cited by Browne, pp. 109–110. ↑
119 Cp. Mrs. Cadell, The Rub’yat of Omar Khayam, 1899. Garnett’s introd. pp. xvii, xviii–xxi, xxiv, and Shirazi, as cited, pp. 79–80. ↑
120 Fitzgerald’s pref. 4th ed. p. xiii; Whinfield, No. 147. Cp. quatrains cited in art. Sufiism, in Relig. Systems of the World, 2nd ed. pp. 325–26. ↑
121 Cp. Whinfield, p. 86, note on No. 147. ↑
122 Guyard, as cited, p. 42. But cp. Ueberweg, i, 411; Nicholson, pp. 233–34. ↑
123 It is not impossible, Max Müller notwithstanding, that the name may have come originally from the Greek sophoi, “the wise,” though it is usually connected with sufi = the woollen robe worn by the Sufite. There are other etymologies. Cp. Fraser, Histor. and Descrip. Account of Persia, 1834, p. 323, note; Dugat, p. 326; and art. Sufiism in Relig. Systems of the World, 2nd ed. p. 315. On the Sufi system in general see also Max Müller, Psychol. Relig. Lect. vi. ↑
124 Cp. Renan, Averroès, p. 293, as to Sufi latitudinarianism. ↑
125 Guyard, p. 44; Relig. Systems, p. 319. ↑
126 Hafiz in his own day was reckoned impious by many. Cp. Malcolm, Sketches of Persia, 1827, ii, 100. ↑
127 Fitzgerald’s pref. p. x. ↑
128 Yet he was disposed to put to death those who claimed mystic intercourse with Deity. Sale, pp. 177–78. ↑
129 Whose Salaman and Absal, tr. by Fitzgerald, is so little noticed in comparison with the Rubáiyát of Omar. ↑
130 E. C. Browne, in Religious Systems, as cited, p. 321; Dugat, p. 331. ↑
131 Shirazi, pp. 22–28; Fitzgerald’s pref. following Mirkhond; Fraser, Persia, p. 329. ↑
132 Cp. Dugat, p. 336; Syed Ameer Ali, pp. 311–15; Gobineau, Les religions et les philosophies dans l’Asie centrale, 2e édit. p. 68. ↑
133 Sale, p. 176. The same doctrine is fairly ancient in India. (Muir, Original Sanskrit Texts, v, 313, note.) A belief that hell-fire will not be eternal was held among the Motazilite sect of Jâhedhians. Sale, p. 164. The Thamamians, again, held that at the resurrection all infidels, idolaters, atheists, Jews, Christians, Magians, and heretics, shall be reduced to dust. Id. ib. ↑
134 Cp. Renan, Averroès, p. 101. Cp. p. 172. ↑
135 Renan’s tr. in Averroès, p. 166. The wording of the last phrase suggests a misconstruction. ↑
137 Renan, Averroès, pp. 104–107. ↑
138 Steiner, Die Mu’taziliten, p. 6. ↑
139 Ueberweg, i, 412; Renan, Averroès, pp. 44, 96. ↑
140 E. G. Browne, Lit. Hist. of Persia, ii, 107. ↑
141 Whom he pronounced a pagan and an infidel. Hauréau, II, i, 29. ↑
142 Cp. Renan, Averroès, pp. 57, 96–98; Whewell, Hist. of the Inductive Sciences, 3rd. ed. I, 193. Renan, following Degenerando (cp. Whewell, as cited), credits Gazzali with anticipating Hume’s criticism of the idea of causation; but Gazzali’s position is that of dogmatic theism, not of naturalism. See Lewes, Hist. of Philos., 4th ed. ii, 57. ↑
143 Hauréau, Hist. de la philos. scolastique, Ptie II, i, 35. ↑
144 Cp. Seignobos, Hist. de la Civ. ii, 58; Stanley Lane-Poole, The Moors in Spain, pref.; Milman, Latin Christianity, 4th ed. ix. 108–18; U. R. Burke, History of Spain, i, ch. 16; Baden Powell, as cited, pp. 94–104; Gebhart, Origines de la Renaissance en Italie, 1879, pp. 185–89; and post, ch. x. ↑
145 Baden Powell, Hist. of Nat. Philos. 1834, p. 97; Whewell, Hist. of the Induct. Sciences, 3rd ed. ii. 273–74. ↑
146 Dr. L. Leclerc, Hist. de la Médecine Arabe, 1876, i, 462; Dr. E. von Meyer, Hist. of Chemistry, Eng. tr. 2nd ed. p. 28. ↑
147 Cp. Buckle, Introd. to Hist. of Civ. in England, 1-vol. ed. p. 70. ↑
148 Lane-Poole, The Moors in Spain, p. 73. ↑
149 Properly Morabethin—men of God or of religion; otherwise known as “Marabouts.” ↑
151 Cp. Dozy, Hist. des Musulmans d’Espagne, iii, 248–86; Ueberweg, i, 415. ↑
152 Renan, Averroès, pp. 98–99. ↑
153 Ueberweg. i. 415; Renan, Averroès, pp. 32, 99. ↑
155 Renan, Averroès, p. 145. ↑
158 Renan, Averroès, pp. 160–62. ↑
159 Ueberweg, i, 416; Steiner, p. 6; Renan, Averroès, p. 162 sq. ↑
160 Ueberweg, i, 460; Renan, pp. 258, 275. ↑
161 Renan, Averroès, p. 169, and references. ↑
163 Id. p. 5. Cp. the Avertissement, p. iii. ↑
164 Renan, Averroès, pp. 31–36. Renan surmises that the popular hostility to the philosophers, which was very marked, was largely due to the element of the conquered Christians, who were noted for their neglect of astronomy and natural science. ↑
165 Cp. Ueberweg. i. 415–17. ↑
166 Cp. Flint, History of the Philosophy of History, ed. 1893, vol. i, p. 169. ↑
167 Cp. Flint, p. 129, as to their hostility to him. ↑
168 Huth, Life and Writings of Buckle, ii, 171. ↑
169 Ricaut, Present State of the Ottoman Empire, 1686, p. 245. ↑
170 Dugat, p. 59. The Ameer Ali Syed, Moulvi, M.A., LL.B., whose Critical Examination of the Life and Teachings of Mohammed appeared in 1873, writes as a Motazilite of a moderate type. ↑
171 Macdonald, pp. 120, 196, 286. ↑
172 A. Franck, Études Orientales, 1861, pp. 241–48, citing the Dabistan. ↑
173 Gobineau, Les religions et les philosophies dans l’Asie centrale, 2e édit. ch. v; J. K. M. Shirazi, Life of Omar Khayyámi, ed. 1905, p. 102. The latter writer notes, however, that “the cultured classes, who ought to know better, are at no pains to dissipate the existing religious prejudice against one [Omar] of whose reputation every Persian may well feel proud.” “At the present time ... the name of Omar is no less execrated by the Shi-ite mob in Persia than it was in his own day.” Id. p. 108. ↑
174 Fraser, Persia, p. 330. This writer (p. 239) describes Sufiism as “the superstition of the freethinker,” and as “often assumed as a cloak to cover entire infidelity.” ↑
175 E.g., Dr. Wills, The Land of the Lion and the Sun, ed. 1891, p. 339. ↑
176 Smith and Dwight, Missionary Researches in Armenia, 1834, p. 340. Cp. Rev. H. Southgate, Tour through Armenia, etc. 1840, ii, 153; and Morier’s Hadji Baba of Ispahan (1824), ch. xlvii, near end. ↑
177 Fraser, Persia, p. 331; Malcolm, Sketches of Persia, ii, 108; Gobineau, as cited, ch. v. ↑
178 H. Vambéry, Der Islam im neunzehnten Jahrhundert, 1875, pp. 32–33. Vambéry further remarks: “The half-fanatical, half-freethinking tone of Persians has often surprised me in my controversies with the most zealous Schiites.” ↑
179 As to the rise of this sect see Gobineau, as cited, pp. 141–358; E. G. Browne’s The Episode of the Bâb; and his lecture on Bâbism in Religious Systems of the World. Cp. Renan, Les Apôtres, pp. 378–81. ↑
180 H. Arakélian, Mémoire sur Le Bâbisme en Perse, in the Actes du Premier Congrès International d’Histoire des Religions, Paris, 1902, 2 Ptie. Fasc. i. ↑
181 Gobineau, pp. 167 sq.; 180 sq.; Arakélian, p. 94. ↑
182 Lane, Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians, 5th ed. 1871, i, 349, 356. “There are, I believe,” says Lane (writing originally in 1836), “very few professed Muslims who are really unbelievers; and these dare not openly avow their unbelief through fear of losing their heads for their apostacy. I have heard of two or three such who have been rendered so by long and intimate intercourse with Europeans; and have met with one materialist, who has often had long discussions with me.” ↑
183 Id. ii, 309. (Suppl. III, “Of Late Innovations in Egypt.”) ↑
184 See the documents reproduced by Max Müller, Introd. to the Science of Religion, ed. 1882, App. 1. ↑
186 Id. pp. 210, 217, 224, 225. ↑
189 Guyard, p. 45; Steiner, p. 5, note; Lane, The Modern Egyptians, ed. 1871, i. 137–38. Cp. Spencer, Study of Sociology, ch. xii, p. 292; Bosworth Smith, Mohammed and Mohammedanism, 2nd ed. pp. 315–19. ↑
190 Derenbourg, p. 72; Steiner, p. 1; Lane, i, 79. ↑
191 Cp. Bosworth Smith, Mohammed and Mohammedanism, Lectures I and IV; Canon Isaac Taylor, address to Church Congress at Wolverhampton, 1887, and letters to Times, Oct. and Nov. 1887. On the other or anti-Mohammedan side see Canon Robinson, Hausaland, 3rd ed. 1900, p. 186 sq.—a somewhat obviously prejudiced argument. See pp. 190–91. ↑
192 Sir Harry H. Johnston, History of the Colonization of Africa by Alien Races, 1899, p. 283. ↑