167 Krasinski, pp. 361–62. Fausto Sozzini also could apparently forgive everybody save those who believed less than he did. ↑
168 Cp. the inquiry as to Locke’s Socinianism in J. Milner’s Account of Mr. Lock’s Religion out of his own Writings, 1706, and Lessing’s Zur Geschichte und Literatur, i, as to Leibnitz’s criticism of Sonerus. ↑
169 Enfield’s History of Philosophy (an abstract of Brucker), ed. 1840, p. 537. ↑
170 In the dominions of Philip II there are said to have been 58 archbishops, 684 bishops, 11,400 abbeys, 23,000 religious fraternities, 46,000 monasteries, 13,500 nunneries, 312,000 secular priests, 400,000 monks, 200,000 friars and other ecclesiastics. H. E. Watts, Miguel de Cervantes, 1895, pp. 67–68. Spain alone had 9,088 monasteries. ↑
171 Buckle, 3-vol. ed. ii, 484; 1-vol. ed. p. 564, and refs. ↑
172 Cp. Buckle, 3-vol. ed. ii, 497–99; 1-vol. ed. pp. 572–73; La Rigaudière, Hist. des Perséc. Relig. en Espagne, 1860, pp. 220–26. ↑
173 Cp. Lewes, Spanish Drama, passim. ↑
174 “He inspires me only with horror for the faith which he professes. No one ever so far disfigured Christianity; no one ever assigned to it passions so ferocious, or morals so corrupt” (Sismondi, Lit. of South of Europe, Bohn tr. ii, 379). ↑
175 Ticknor, Hist. of Spanish Lit. 6th ed. ii, 501; Don Quixote, pt. ii, ch. liv; Ormsby, tr. of Don Quixote, 1885, introd. i, 58. ↑
176 Lafuente, Historia de España, 1856, xvii, 340. It is not quite certain that Lafuente expressed his sincere opinion. ↑
179 Bouterwek, Hist. of Spanish and Portuguese Literature, Eng. tr. 1823, i, 331. ↑
182 Bouterwek, whose sociology, though meritorious, is ill-clarified, argues that the Inquisition was in a manner congenital to Spain because before its establishment the suspicion of heresy was already “more degrading in Spain than the most odious crimes in other countries.” But the same might have been said of the other countries also. As to earlier Spanish heresy see above, vol. i, p. 337 sq. ↑
183 Despite the many fallacies retained by Copernicus from the current astronomy, he must be pronounced an exceptionally scientific spirit. Trained as a mathematician, astronomer, and physician, he showed a keen and competent interest in the practical problem of currency; and one of the two treatises which alone he published of his own accord was a sound scheme for the rectification of that of his own government. Though a canon of Frauenburg, he never took orders; but did manifold and unselfish secular service. ↑
184 It was shielded by thirteen popes—from Paul III to Paul V. ↑
185 Galileo, Dialogi dei due massimi sistemi del mondo, ii (Opere, ed. 1811, xi, 303–304). ↑
186 A good study of Bruno is supplied by Owen in his Skeptics of the Italian Renaissance. He has, however, omitted to embody the later discoveries of Dufour and Berti, and has some wrong dates. The Life of Giordano Bruno, by I. Frith (Mrs. Oppenheim), 1887, gives all the data, but is inadequate on the philosophic side. A competent estimate is given in the late Prof. Adamson’s lectures on The Development of Modern Philosophy, etc., 1903, ii, 23 sq.; also in his art. in Encyc. Brit. For a hostile view see Hallam, Lit. of Europe, ii, 105–111. The biography of Bartholmèss, Jordano Bruno, 1846, is extremely full and sympathetic, but was unavoidably loose as to dates. Much new matter has since been collected, for which see the Vita di Giordano Bruno of Domenico Berti, rev. and enlarged ed. 1889; Prof. J. L. McIntyre, Giordano Bruno, 1903; Dufour, Giordano Bruno à Génève: Documents Inédits, 1884; David Levi, Giordano Bruno, o la religione del pensiero: l’uomo, l’apostolo e il martire, 1887; Dr. H. Brunnhofer’s Giordano Bruno’s Weltanschauung und Verhängniss, 1882; and the doctoral treatise of C. Sigwart, Die Lebensgeschichte Giordano Brunos, Tübingen, 1880. For other authorities see Owen’s and I. Frith’s lists, and the final Literaturnachweis in Gustav Louis’s Giordano Bruno, seine Weltanschauung und Lebensverfassung, Berlin, 1900. The study of Bruno has been carried further in Germany than in England; but Mr. Whittaker (Essays and Notices, 1895) and Prof. McIntyre make up much leeway. ↑
187 Cp. Bartholmèss, i, 49–53; Lange, Gesch. des Materialismus, i, 191–94 (Eng. tr. i, 232); Gustav Louis, as cited, pp. 11, 88. ↑
188 Berti, Vita di Giordano Bruno, 1889, pp. 40–41, 420. Bruno gives the facts in his own narrative before the Inquisitors at Venice. ↑
189 Berti, pp. 42–43, 47; Owen, p. 265. ↑
190 Not to Genoa, as Berti stated in his first ed. See ed. 1889, pp. 54, 392. ↑
191 Berti, p. 65. Owen has the uncorrected date, 1576. ↑
192 Dufour, Giordano Bruno à Génève: Documents Inédits, 1884; Berti, pp. 95–97; Gustav Louis, Giordano Bruno, pp. 73–75. Owen (p. 269) has overlooked these facts, set forth by Dufour in 1884. The documents are given in full in Frith, Life, 1887, p. 60 sq. ↑
193 The dates are in doubt. Cp. Berti, p. 115, and Frith, p. 65. ↑
194 See his own narrative before the Inquisitors in 1592. Berti, p. 394. ↑
195 McIntyre, Giordano Bruno, 1907, pp. 21–22. ↑
196 Frith, Life, p. 121, and refs.; Owen, p. 275; Bartholmèss, Jordano Bruno, i, 136–38. ↑
197 Cp. Hallam, Lit. of Europe, ii, 111, note. As to Bruno’s supposed influence on Bacon and Shakespeare, cp. Bartholmèss, i, 134–35; Frith, Life, pp. 104–48; and the author’s Montaigne and Shakspere, pp. 132–38. Here there is no case; but there is much to be said for Mr. Whittaker’s view (Essays and Notices, p. 94) that Spenser’s late Cantos on Mutability were suggested by Bruno’s Spaccio. Prof. McIntyre supports. ↑
198 His praise of Luther, and his compliments to the Lutherans, are in notable contrast to his verdict on Calvinism. What happened was that at Wittemberg he was on his best behaviour, and was well treated accordingly. ↑
199 As to the traitor’s motives cp. McIntyre, p. 66 sq.; Berti, p. 262 sq. ↑
200 Noroff, as cited in Frith, p. 345. ↑
201 De l’Infinito, ed. Wagner, ii, 27; Cena de la Ceneri, ed. Wagner, i, 173; Acrotismus, ed. Gfrörer, p. 12. ↑
202 Cp. Berti, pp. 187–88; Whittaker, Essays and Notices, 1895, p. 89; and Louis’s section, Stellung zu Christenthum und Kirche. ↑
203 Berti, pp. 297–98. It takes much searching in the two poems to find any of the ideas in question, and Berti has attempted no collation; but, allowing for distortions, the Inquisition has sufficient ground for outcry. ↑
204 Sigillus Sigillorum: De duodecima contractionis speciae. Cp. F. J. Clemens, Giordano Bruno und Nicolaus von Cusa, 1847, pp. 176, 183; and H. Brunnhofer, Giordano Bruno’s Weltanschauung und Verhängniss, 1882, pp. 227, 237. ↑
205 In the treatise De Lampade combinatoria Lulliana (1587). According to Berti (p. 220) he is the first to employ this phrase, which becomes the watchword of Spinoza (libertas philosophandi) a century later. ↑
206 Berti, cap. iv; Owen, p. 249; Ueberweg, ii, 27; Pünjer, p. 93 sq.; Whittaker, Essays and Notices, p. 66. As to Bruno’s debt to Nicolaus of Cusa cp. Gustav Louis, as cited, p. 11; Pünjer, as cited; Carriere, Die philosophische Weltanschauung der Reformationszeit, p. 25; and Whittaker, p. 68. The argument of Carriere’s second edition is analysed and rebutted by Mr. Whittaker, p. 253 sq. ↑
207 De Immenso, vii, c. 18, cited by Whittaker, Essays and Notices, p. 70. ↑
208 As to Bruno’s own claim in the Eroici Furori, cp. Whittaker, Essays, p. 90. ↑
209 Documents in Berti, pp. 407–18; McIntyre, p. 75 sq. ↑
210 See the document in Berti, p. 398 sq.; Frith, pp. 270–81. ↑
212 See Berti, p. 396; Owen, pp. 285–86; Frith, pp. 282–83. ↑
213 The controversy as to whether Galileo was tortured leaves it clear that torture was common. See Dr. Parchappe, Galilée, sa vie, etc., 1866, Ptie. ii, ch. 7. ↑
214 Spaccio della bestia trionfante, ed. Wagner, ii, 120. ↑
215 Prof. Carriere has contended that a transition from pantheism to theism marks the growth of his thought; but, as is shown by Mr. Whittaker, he is markedly pantheistic in his latest work of all, though his pantheism is not merely naturalistic. Essays and Notices, pp. 72, 253–58. ↑
216 Italian versions differ verbally. Cp. Levi, p. 379; Berti, p. 386. That inscribed on the Bruno statue at Rome is a close rendering of the Latin: Majori forsan cum timore sententiam in me fertis quam ego accipiam, preserved by Scioppius. ↑
217 Avviso, in Berti, p. 329; in Levi, p. 386. ↑
218 Levi, pp. 384–92. Levi relates (p. 390) that Bruno at the stake was heard to utter the words: “O Eterno, io fo uno sforzo supremo per attrarre in me quanto vi tra di più divino nell’universo.” He cites no authority. An Avviso reports that Bruno said his soul would rise with the smoke to Paradise (p. 386; Berti, p. 330), but does not state that this was said at the stake. And Levi accepts the other report that Bruno was gagged. ↑
219 Notably his comedy Il Candelaio. ↑
220 Owen, Skeptics of the Italian Renaissance, p. 357. A full narrative, from the documents, is given in R. C. Christie’s essay, “Vanini in England,” in the English Historical Review of April, 1895, reprinted in his Selected Essays and Papers, 1902. ↑
221 See it analysed by Owen, pp. 361–68, and by Carriere, Weltanschauung, pp. 496–504. ↑
222 Amphitheatrum, 1615, Exercit. xix, pp. 117–18. ↑
223 Amphitheatrum, Exercit. xxvii, p. 161. ↑
224 Id. pp. 72, 73, 78, 113, etc. ↑
225 P. 35. Machiavelli is elsewhere attacked. Pp. 36, 50. ↑
226 Julii Cæsaris Vanini Neapolitani, Theologi, Philosophi, et juris utriusque Doctoris, de Admirandis Naturæ Reginæque Deæque Mortalium Arcanis, libri quatuor. Lutetiæ, 1616. ↑
227 Mr. Owen makes a serious misstatement on this point, by which I was formerly misled. He writes (p. 369) that from the publisher’s preface we “learn that the Dialogues were not written by Vanini, but by his disciples. They are a collection of discursive conversations embodying their master’s opinions.” This is not what the preface says. It tells, after a high-pitched eulogy of Vanini, that “nos publicæ utilitatis solliciti, alia eius monumenta, quæ avarius retinebat, per idoneos ex scriptores nancisci curavimus.” In ascribing the matter of the dialogues to Vanini’s young days, Mr. Owen forgets the references to the Amphitheatrum. ↑
228 “Alex. Sed in qua nam Religione verè et piè Deum coli vetusti Philosophi existimarunt? Vanini. In unica Naturæ lege, quam ipsa Natura, quæ Deus est (est enim principium motus)....” De Arcanis, as cited, p. 366. Lib. iv, Dial. 50. See Rousselot’s French tr. 1842, p. 227. This passage is cited by Hallam (Lit. Hist. ii, 461) as avowing “disbelief of all religion except such as Nature ... has planted in the minds of men”—a heedless perversion. ↑
229 De Arcanis, pp. 354–60, 420–22 (Dial. 50, 56); Rousselot, pp. 219–23, 271–73. ↑
230 The special reference (lib. iv, dial. 56, p. 428) is to a story of an infant prophesying when only twenty-four hours old. (Amphitheatrum, Ex. vi, p. 38; cp. Owen, p. 368, note.) On this and on other points Cousin (cited by Owen, pp. 368, 371, 377) and Hallam (Lit. Hist. ii, 461) make highly prejudiced statements. Quoting the final pages on which the dialoguist passes from serious debate to a profession of levity, and ends by calling for the play-table, the English historian dismisses him as “the wretched man.” ↑
231 Cp. Carriere’s analysis of the Dialogues, pp. 505–59; and the Apologia pro Jul. Cæsare Vanino (by Arpe), 1712. ↑
232 See Owen’s vindication, pp. 371–74. Renan’s criticism (Averroès, pp. 420–23) is not quite judicial. See many others cited by Carriere, p. 516. ↑
233 It is difficult to understand how the censor could let pass the description of Nature in the title; but this may have been added after the authorization. The book is dedicated by Vanini to Marshal Bassompierre, and the epistle dedicatory makes mention of the Serenissima Regina aeterni nominis Maria Medicæa, which would disarm suspicion. In any case the permit was revoked, and the book condemned to be burned. ↑
235 Mercure Français, 1619, tom. v, p. 64. ↑
236 Gramond (Barthélemi de Grammont), Historia Galliæ ab excessu Henrici IV, 1643, p. 209. Carriere translates the passage in full, pp. 500–12, 515; as does David Durand in his hostile Vie et Sentimens de Lucilio Vanini, 1717. As to Gramond see the Lettres de Gui Patin, who (Lett. 428, ed. Reveillé-Parise) calls him âme foible et bigote, and guilty of falsehood and flattery. ↑
237 Gramond, p. 210. Of Vanini, as of Bruno, it is recorded that at the stake he repelled the proffered crucifix. Owen and other writers, who justly remark that he well might, overlook the once received belief that it was the official practice, with obstinate heretics, to proffer a red-hot crucifix, so that the victim should be sure to spurn it with open anger. ↑
238 Stephen Phillips, Marpessa. ↑
239 Cp. Owen, pp. 389, 391, and Carriere, pp. 512–13, as to the worst calumnies. It is significant that Vanini was tried solely for blasphemy and atheism. What is proved against him is that he and an associate practised a rather gross fraud on the English ecclesiastical authorities, having apparently no higher motive than gain and a free life. Mr. Christie notes, however, that Vanini in his writings always speaks very kindly of England and the English, and so did not add ingratitude to his act of imposture. ↑
240 De Arcanis, p. 205. Lib. iii, dial. 30. ↑
242 De Arcanis, lib. iv, dial. 52, p. 379; dial. 51, p. 373. Cp. Amphitheatrum, p. 36; and De Arcanis, p. 20. ↑
243 De Arcanis, dial. 50 and 56. In the Amphitheatrum he adduces an equally skilful German atheist (p. 73). ↑
246 Cp. Rousselot, notice, p. xi. ↑
247 Durand compiles a list of ten or eleven works of Vanini from the allusions in the Amphitheatrum and the De Arcanis. ↑
248 Reported by Gramond, as cited. ↑
250 Garasse, Doctrine curieuse des beaux esprits, 1623. ↑
251 De Arcanis, dial. vii, p. 36. ↑
253 Doctrine curieuse des beaux esprits de ce temps, 1623, p. 848. ↑
254 Karl von Gebler, Galileo Galilei and the Roman Curia, Eng. tr. 1879, pp. 36–37. ↑
255 This appears from the letters of Sagredo to Galileo. Gebler, p. 37. Cp. Gui Patin, Lett. 816, ed. Reveillé-Parise, 1846, iii, 758; Bayle, art. Cremonin, notes C and D; and Renan, Averroès, 3e édit. pp. 408–13. Patin writes that his friend Naudé “avoit été intime ami de Cremonin, qui n’étoit point meilleur Chrétien que Pomponace, que Machiavel, que Cardan et telles autres ... dont le pays abonde.” ↑
256 Lange, Gesch. des Materialismus, i, 183 (Eng. tr. i, 220); Gebler, p. 25. Libri actually made the refusal; but all that is proved as to Cremonini is that he opposed Galileo’s discoveries à priori. As to the attitude of such opponents see Galileo’s letter to Kepler. J. J. Fahie, Galileo: his Life and Work, 1903. pp. 101–102. ↑
259 Gebler, pp. 54, 129, and passim; The Private Life of Galileo (by Mrs. Olney), Boston, 1870, pp. 67–72. ↑
260 Galileo’s letter to Kepler, cited by Gebler, p. 26. ↑
261 The Jesuits were expelled from Venice in 1616, in retaliation for a papal interdict. ↑
262 See it summarized by Gebler, pp. 46–60, and quoted in the Private Life, pp. 83–85. ↑
263 The measure of reverence with which the orthodox handled the matter may be inferred from the fact that the Dominican Caccini, who preached against Galileo in Florence, took as one of his texts the verse in Acts i: “Viri Galilaei, quid statis aspicientes in cœlum,” making a pun on the Scripture. ↑
264 See this summarized by Gebler, pp. 64–70. ↑
265 See The Private Life of Galileo, pp. 86–87, 91, 99; Gebler, p. 44; Fahie, pp. 169–70; Berti, Il Processo Originale de Galileo Galilei, 1878, p. 53. ↑
266 Gebler (p. 101) solemnly comments on this letter as a lapse into “servility” on Galileo’s part. ↑
268 Private Life, pp. 216–18; Gebler, pp. 157–62. ↑
269 Berti, pp. 61–64; Private Life, pp. 212–13; Gebler, p. 162. ↑
270 Gebler, p. 239; Private Life, p. 256. ↑
271 Gebler, pp. 249–63; Private Life, pp. 255–56; Marini, pp. 55–57. The “e pur si muove” story is first heard of in 1774. As to the torture, it is to be remembered that Galileo recanted under threat of it. See Berti, pp. 93–101; Marini, p. 59; Sir O. Lodge, Pioneers of Science, 1893, pp. 128–31. Berti argues that only the special humanity of the Commissary-General, Macolano, saved him from the torture. Cp. Gebler, p. 259, note. ↑
273 Private Life, pp. 265–60, 268; Gebler, p. 252. ↑
274 Berti, Il Processo di Galileo, pp. 111–12. ↑
275 Letter of Hobbes to Newcastle, in Report of the Hist. Mss. Comm. on the Duke of Portland’s Papers, 1892, ii. Hobbes explains that few copies were brought over, “and they that buy such books are not such men as to part with them again.” “I doubt not,” he adds, “but the translation of it will here be publicly embraced.” ↑
276 Gebler, pp. 312–15; Putnam, Censorship of the Church of Rome, i, 313–14. ↑
277 See Ueberweg, ii, 12, as to the conflicting types. In addition to Cremonini, several leading Aristotelians in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries were accused of atheism (Hallam, Lit. Hist. ii, 101–102), the old charge against the Peripatetic school. Hallam (p. 102) complains that Cesalpini of Pisa “substitutes the barren unity of pantheism for religion.” Cp. Ueberweg, ii, 14; Renan, Averroès, 3e édit. p. 417. An Averroïst on some points, he believed in separate immortality. ↑
278 Gebler, pp. 37, 45. Gebler appears to surmise that Cremonini may have escaped the attack upon himself by turning suspicion upon Galileo, but as to this there is no evidence. ↑
282 Bartholmèss, Jordano Bruno, i, 49. ↑
283 Lange, Gesch. des Mater. i, 189–90 (Eng. tr. i, 228). Born in Valencia and trained at Paris, Vives became a humanist teacher at Louvain, and was called to England (1523) to be tutor to the Princess Mary. During his stay he taught at Oxford. Being opposed to the divorce of Henry VIII, he was imprisoned for a time, afterwards living at Bruges. ↑
284 See the monograph, Ramus, sa vie, ses écrits, et ses opinions, par Ch. Waddington, 1855. Owen has a good account of Ramus in his French Skeptics. ↑
285 Scholæ math. l. iii, p. 78, cited by Waddington, p. 343. ↑
286 “In many respects Galileo deserves to be ranked with Descartes as inaugurating modern philosophy.” Prof. Adamson, Development of Mod. Philos. 1903, i, 5. “We may compare his [Hobbes’s] thought with Descartes’s, but the impulse came to him from the physical reasonings of Galileo.” Prof. Croom Robertson, Hobbes, 1886, p. 42. ↑
287 Buckle, 1-vol. ed. pp. 327–36; 3-vol. ed. ii, 77–85. Cp. Lange, i, 425 (Eng. tr. i, 248, note); Adamson, Philosophy of Kant, 1879, p. 194. ↑
288 Cp. Lange, i, 425 (Eng. tr. i, 248–49, note); Bouillier, Hist. de la philos. cartésienne, 1854, i, 40–47, 185–86; Bartholmèss, Jordano Bruno, i, 354–55; Memoir in Garnier ed. of Œuvres Choisies, p. v, also pp. 6, 17, 19, 21. Bossuet pronounced the precautions of Descartes excessive. But cp. Dr. Land’s notes in Spinoza: Four Essays, 1882, p. 55. ↑
289 Coll. of Philos. Writings, ed. 1712, pref. p. xi. ↑
290 Discours de la Méthode, pties. i, ii, iii, iv (Œuvres Choisies, pp. 8, 10, 11, 22, 24); Meditation I (id. pp. 73–74). ↑
291 Full details in Kuno Fischer’s Descartes and his School, Eng. tr. 1890, bk. i, ch. vi; Bouillier, i, chs. xii, xiii. ↑
292 Buckle, 1-vol. ed. pp. 337–39; 3-vol. ed. ii, 94, 97. ↑
293 Buckle, pp. 327–30; ii, 81. ↑
294 Id. p. 330; ii, 82. The process is traced hereinafter. ↑
295 Kuno Fischer, Francis Bacon, Eng. tr. 1857, p. 74. ↑
296 For an exact summary and criticism of Gassendi’s positions see the masterly monograph of Prof. Brett of Lahore, The Philosophy of Gassendi, 1908—a real contribution to the history of philosophy. ↑
297 Cp. Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations, bk. v, ch. i (McCulloch’s ed. 1839, pp. 364–65). It is told of him, with doubtful authority, that when dying he said: “I know not who brought me into the world, neither do I know what was to do there, nor why I go out of it.” Reflections on the Death of Freethinkers, by Deslandes (Eng. tr. of the Réflexions sur les grands hommes qui sont morts en plaisantant), 1713, p. 105. ↑
298 For a good account of Gassendi and his group (founded on Lange, § iii, ch. i) see Soury, Bréviaire de l’hist. de matérialisme, ptie. iii, ch. ii. ↑
299 Voltaire, Éléments de philos. de Newton, ch. ii; Lange, i, 232 (Eng. tr. i, 267) and 269. ↑
300 Bayle, art. Pomponace, Notes F. and G. The complaint was made by Arnauld, who with the rest of the Jansenists was substantially a Cartesian. ↑
301 See it in Garnier’s ed. of Descartes’s Œuvres Choisies, p. 145. ↑
303 Apparently just because the Jansenists adopted Descartes and opposed Gassendi. But Gassendi is extremely guarded in all his statements, save, indeed, in his objections to the Méditations of Descartes. ↑
304 See Soury, pp. 397–98, as to a water-drinking “debauch” of Gassendi and his friends. ↑
305 Rambaud, as cited, p. 154. ↑
307 Voltaire, Siècle de Louis XIV, ed. Didot, p. 366. “On ne l’eût pas osé sous Henri IV et sous Louis XIII,” adds Voltaire. Cp. Michelet, La Sorcière, éd. Séailles, 1903, p. 302. ↑
308 Tr. into English in 1659, under the title The Vanity of Judiciary Astrology. ↑