Union Cloth.—As the name implies, Union Cloths are woven with warp and weft of different fibres. They are also called "mixed cloths," and the union of the two different kinds of fibres may be arrived at by intermingling the wool and cotton fibres to form the warp or weft of a fabric or, as in most cases, each kind of fibre may be confined to separate threads, forming part or the whole of the warp or weft. Union Cloths are generally "cross-dyed," although they may also be "dyed in the grey." In the case of "cross-dyeing," the cotton warp is dyed the desired colour and interlaced with a wool weft, which is in a grey or undyed condition, and subsequently the weft only is dyed, this being possible as the affinity of cotton and wool are different. When light colours are desired in the fabric the cotton warp and wool weft are woven in a grey or undyed condition, and then both are dyed in the fabric: this method is styled "dyeing in the grey." In some cases the wool and cotton are treated separately, in others union dyes are employed.

The principal Union Cloths met with are: Brilliantines, Glacés, and Sicilians, plain-weave materials with cotton warp and mohair weft; Alpacas, plain or twill weave, cotton warp and alpaca weft; Lustres, plain or twill weave, cotton warp and lustre or demi-lustre weft; Italians, five-shaft weft, sateen weave, cotton warp, fine Botany weft; Cashmeres, 2/1 weft twill weave, cotton warp, fine Botany weft; Beatrice Twill, five-end (four weft and one warp) twill, cotton warp, demi-lustre weft. All authorities do not agree as to what constitutes a Union, the following definition having been met with: "Fabrics are union when composed of two materials otherwise than by blending." In the Morley (Yorkshire) trade a "Union" is a cotton warp cloth of boiled and teazled finish superficially resembling Broadcloth.

Union Yarns.—These yarns, as the name indicates, are the product of combining two or more different materials into a yarn, generally wool and cotton or wool, and any of the many vegetable fibres capable of being spun.

Union Yarns may be produced by the mixing together of the two or more different fibres when they are still in the state of loose fibres; in such a case the cotton fibres act as binders upon the rest of the fibres. When the various fibres are thoroughly mixed together, the mixture obtained is spun: this produces the variety known as Carded Union Yarns. Another form of Union Yarn is obtained by twisting together two threads of different material. Some Union Yarns have the appearance of pure wool threads, and only careful scrutiny will reveal the presence of cotton fibre; this type of yarn is known by the name of Angola yarn.

Union Yarns, being composed of materials that are not affected by dyes in the same way, can be recognised when found in a so-called wool fabric from the fact that the wool in the yarn will have taken up the dye, whereas the cotton will not have done so to the same extent, but will have retained more or less its original colour.

Velour.—This name is given to a soft, thick, nappy flannel used in the making of dressing-gowns, etc., made from either wool or cotton or a combination of both. As a cotton fabric, it is of the coarse, stiff, pile variety. The name is French for Velvet, hence its use in connexion with a pile-surface fabric. As a woollen and worsted term, there is a considerable diversity of opinion as to the precise cloth designated by the term Velour. Some manufacturers would class as Velours any cloth having a soft velvety nap, others make finer distinctions, classing one as a "face-finished Cashmere," a second as a "Saxony," with Velour slightly different from either of these.

Velvet.—This name is given to a pure all-silk pile fabric with a pile weave, the distinctive feature of which is that the surface consists of silk threads or fibres standing closely together like the bristles in a brush. These threads appear as threads sheared off smooth, so as to form a uniform or even surface. "All-silk" in this definition of Velvet applies to the pile only, for Velvets are so generally woven with a cotton back that a Silk Velvet should be considered as having a cotton back unless specially designated as "silk backed."

Velvet Finish.—A finish produced upon woollen fabrics by wet-raising in various directions and subsequently cropping the pile thus raised level, which leaves the velvet-finished material with a fairly dense pile of a velvety appearance.

Velveteen.—This name is given to the class of fabrics that in reality are but Cotton Velvets. Like true Velvets, they are woven with a pile weave, the distinctive feature of which is that the surface consists of threads or fibres standing closely together like the bristles in a brush. These threads appear as threads sheared off smooth, so as to form a uniform or even surface. Velveteens are generally woven on the weft-pile basis, that is to say, that the "pile floats" or "flushings" are produced with the weft threads—which are afterwards cut—additional to and on a firmly constructed woven ground texture. Weft pile can be recognised by removing from the fabric a weft thread, when, upon withdrawing this thread, it will be seen that the bits of "cut pile" are not looped round it or attached to it but remain entangled among the warp threads. Common Velveteen, which is "all cotton," will be identified as a weft pile in this manner. Velveteens are also known as Velverets or Fustians. Standard widths for Velveteens are 19 inches, 22½ inches, 24½ inches, and 27½ or 28 inches.

Venetians.—A wool fabric, closely woven in a fine twill. As applied to a cotton fabric, it is used to designate a heavy, warp-face, Dress Satin (or Sateen) of strong texture and closely woven, dyed in the piece, silky and lustrous in appearance. Light weights would be sold as Sateen or Dress Sateen. Woven with about 200 to 250 threads to the square inch, the style of weave in itself tends to produce lustre; this is intensified by calendering and sometimes by mercerising the fabric. The weave is of an upright warp twill character, and the name was first applied to a dress face woollen cloth; later, worsted dress Venetians were made, and later still the name was applied to an all-cotton fabric of similar weave.

Warp Ribs.—The term "warp ribs" is used to designate a warp-surface weave in which, owing to the thickness of the weft threads (or picks) or to the grouping together of a number of weft picks, the warp threads are made to bend round them and, being thus thrown to the surface of the fabric, produce a ribbed appearance running from selvedge to selvedge in which the warp threads are on the face of the fabric. Poplin is a typical warp-ribbed fabric.

Warp Sateen.—A common form of Cotton Sateen cloth is that woven with a "warp sateen" weave on the five threads and picks system, which results in four-fifths of the warp threads appearing on the face of the fabric and therefore four-fifths of the weft threads appear on the back of the fabric. The object of weaving on this principle is to obtain a smooth cloth surface by distributing the interlacing points and so destroying the common "twilled" effect. A Warp Sateen will be much closer in the warp threads than in the weft threads, and therefore stronger in that direction.

Waste and Flocks.—Cotton mill waste is the by-product derived from the cotton in its various processes through the mill. Each pound of cotton before it becomes cloth loses on an average 15 per cent. visible and invisible waste. The visible waste is of two kinds, hard and soft; hard waste, which has been made on spinning and subsequent machines, and which bears a slight twist; soft waste, which includes that part of the fibre rejected by all machines up to the spinning frame. The invisible waste is equal to the amount of evaporation of moisture in the cotton during the process of manufacture. Flocks are short fibres removed from cloth during the process of napping.

Waste Cloths.—Cotton fabrics woven from waste yarns, generally plain woven and of low grade. The weft thread is coarse and is spun from waste or short-fibre cotton.

Watering.—As a textile term, it is used to designate the process whereby certain distinctive effects are produced on the face of plain-woven fabrics—especially silks. The process of giving a wavy or wave-like appearance in fabrics by either passing them through suitably engraved metal rollers which, bearing unequally upon the fabric, render the surface unequal, making it reflect light differently. The same result is obtained by pressing two plain-woven fabrics together, when the coarser weft threads of the fabric produce the wave-like indentations on the face of the fabric it is pressed against. A fabric is said to be "watered" when ornamented by either of the above processes. The principle of this operation is that two fabrics of precisely similar build, when pressed together, naturally "water" each other, owing to the coincidence or non-coincidence of the threads or picks causing flatness or ribbedness of a sufficiently marked character under conditions of heat and pressure. "To tabby" is another expression for "to water," and the adjective "tabby," usually referring to a brindled cat, signifies streaked with wavy lines.

Weft Ribs.—The only difference between these and warp ribs is that the weft bends and the warp lies straight. The term "weft rib" is used to designate a weft surface weave in which, owing to the thickness of the warp threads or to the grouping together of a number of warp threads, the weft threads are made to bend round them and, being thus thrown to the surface of the fabric, produce a ribbed appearance with the ribs running lengthways, in which the weft threads are on the face of the fabric.

Weight and Thickness of Woollen Cloths.—The accepted standard of weight and thickness of woollen cloth is—

Naturally, also, the relation of weight to thickness varies with the composition of the cloth and the style of make, some "woolly" makes of 20 ounces being very thick.

Weighting.—The process of adding to the natural weight of a fabric by making it take up certain chemical or other substances.

Welt.—The double thick portion or wide hem at top of plain hose.

Whip Thread.—The crossing thread in a gauze fabric.

Whipcord.—This name is given to hard-twisted worsted twills in either solid or mixed colours. The twill or diagonal in this class of fabric is well marked and slightly raised, somewhat resembling the hard-twisted fibre lash of a whip.

White.—As a textile term, this word is applied to fabrics which are not in their loom state, i.e., in the grey, but which have been bleached and rendered white.

White Brocades.—Under this name would be classed bleached fabrics of different weaves or combinations of weave in which the design appearing on the surface of the fabric is of a fancy, figured, or floral effect, usually of elaborate design. Soft spun wefts are generally used in the weaving of Brocades and other figured cloths, as they fill and throw up better the figure produced than a hard-twist yarn would do. White Brocades are all-cotton goods unless otherwise stated. Lappet and swivel figured fabrics would not come under the heading "Brocades"; such style of figuring is not brocaded.

White Cambric.—Cambric is a plain-weave fine linen fabric of light weight and soft finish. Cotton Cambric, in which the yarn used is of fine cotton, is mostly met with. It is woven without a selvedge and generally leaves the loom in pieces of 120 yards, which are cut to shorter lengths. In plain white, a Cambric is finer than a Lawn. Cambric of French origin is generally finer in texture than the Manchester Cambric. Cambric varies in width from 32 to 46 inches and in length from 12 to 40 yards per piece. The finer qualities are made from hard-twisted cotton. The warp yarn is often of a different thickness to that used for the filling, and it is generally finished with a smooth glazed surface. The term Cambric is also commonly applied to Muslins. White Cambric is a bleached material.

White Drills, or Drilling.—White Drills are, when not otherwise specified, all-cotton medium and heavy weight single cloths woven as a three-shaft twill (two warp and one weft), which have been bleached but not dyed or printed. The better qualities of warp-faced sateen-weave Drills are known as Satin Drill, and these are extensively exported to the Far East; their distinctive features lie in the closeness of weave, smoothness of surface, and finish.

White Goods.—A generic term covering a great variety of bleached fabrics, plain or fancy, covering various weaves or combination of weaves.

White Irishes.—The term Irishes originally was applied to linen fabrics which were mainly produced in and around Belfast. It is now used to describe certain cotton fabrics of plain weave similar to white cotton Calico. Generally in pieces 36 inches wide and 42 yards long, finished with a heavy starch finish.

White Italian.—The name White Italian is not generally applied to a white cotton fabric woven and finished as an Italian. Such a fabric is a White Mercerised Sateen; however, occasionally an invoice covering Coloured Italians will be found to include so-called White Italians. In such cases the colour assortment list (which generally accompanies, if it does not form part of, the invoice) will show the number of white pieces included in the shipment. The ordinary Italian is essentially a coloured or piece-dyed material, and, as white is not, in the piece goods trade, considered to be a colour, a White Italian cannot be considered as coming under the classification of Dyed Plain Cottons.

White Jean.—A White Jean is an all-cotton fabric woven as a three-end twill, similar in weave to a Grey Jean, but which has been subjected to a process of bleaching to turn it into what is known as a "market white" fabric. The process of bleaching proper is always preceded by a series of operations that have for their object the improving of the surface of the cloth by removing loose fibres, motes, and ends of yarn, and by cleaning and singeing the surface so as to free it from all "nap." The distinctive weave of this fabric is given under "Grey Jeans," which is the class of Jean most often met with.

White Muslin.—Muslin is a light-weight, open, plain-weave cotton fabric made generally of low-count yarns, that is to say, of fairly coarse yarn. Muslins, Lawns, and Cambrics are all materials which are similar in construction but vary by their quality, Muslin being the lowest grade of the three. A very common kind of Muslin is known as Butter Muslin or Cheese Cloth. Muslins vary in width from 32 to 46 inches and in length from 12 to 40 yards per piece. Foundation Muslin, Book Muslin, and Butcher's Muslin are varieties of Muslin so dissimilar to the true Muslin that they should not be considered as coming under the classification of true Muslin, which, whilst it varies considerably, should always answer to the description of "a fine, soft, thin, open, plain-woven cotton fabric." White Muslin is a bleached material.

White Sheetings.—A bleached light or medium weight plain-woven all-cotton fabric. Under the heading "Grey Sheeting" will be found a description of the two distinct varieties of fabric known as Sheeting. Where such Grey Sheetings have been rendered white by being bleached and are no longer in their loom state, they are known as White Sheetings.

White Striped Shirtings.—The fabric which would properly come under this classification would be essentially all-cotton fabrics containing stripes, produced by a combination of weave and not the result of printing or due to the presence of coloured yarns. A plain-weave ground may be combined with a sateen-weave stripe. Such a fabric would not be called a Fancy Shirting, which in the trade is generally understood to be "either printed on the woven, bleached fabric, or of fast colours, dyed upon the warp, or combination of each." White Striped Shirtings are mostly made on a Jacquard loom, and in the white condition the woven pattern constitutes the only effect or ornamentation in the finished cloth.

White T-Cloth.—A bleached all-cotton fabric, plain woven from low-quality yarns. An ordinary T-Cloth which has been bleached. Generally sold in lengths of 24 yards and varying in width from 32 to 36 inches. The name is said to be derived from the mark T of the original exporters.

White Venetians.—What has been said of White Italians holds good mutatis mutandis of White Venetians. Such fabrics are in reality White Warp-faced Sateens, and, white not being considered a colour, they do not come under the classification of Dyed Plain Cottons.

Widow's Lawn.—A better quality of Lawn made from linen, well woven, very clear and even in texture.

Wool.—Wool is the soft, curly covering which forms the fleecy coat of the sheep and other similar animals, such as the goat, alpaca, llama, vicuña, and camel.

The chief characteristic of wool is its felting or shrinking power. This felting property, from which wool derives its chief value and which is its special distinction from hair, depends in part upon the kinks in the fibre but mainly upon the scales with which the fibre is covered. The process of felting consists in the fibres becoming entangled with each other, and the little projecting scales hooking into each other and holding the fibres closely interlocked.

The wool of commerce is divided into three great classes:—

Combing wools take their name from the process of "combing" which they undergo when being prepared for spinning into yarn. Combing wools are longer than carding wools; they are also harder or more wiry and less inclined to be spiral or kinky.

Carding wools—made to cross and interlace and interlock with one another—are shorter than combing, and, in addition, they possess the power of felting (that is to say, of matting together in a close, compact mass) to a much greater degree.

The first and finest clip of wool is called lamb's wool; it is taken from the young sheep at the age of eight to twelve months and, never having been clipped before, it is naturally pointed at the end. All subsequent cut fleeces are known as wether wool and are less valuable than the first clip. The ends of such wool are thick and blunted on account of having been previously cut.

Wool, unlike cotton, is not capable of being worked into a yarn without first being thoroughly cleansed of its impurities.

Woollen.—This term is used in contradistinction to worsted, and implies difference of material and method of manufacture. Wastes, shoddy, and blends of material other than wool are referred to as "woollen," in opposition to "all wool."

Woollen and Cotton Flannel.—A fabric answering to the description of true Flannel, usually woven with either a plain or twill weave, soft finished, but which is made from carded union yarn, i.e., yarn composed of wool and cotton in varying proportions according to the quality of the material it is intended to produce. If a Woollen and Cotton Flannel were described as a Union Flannel it would be composed of distinct yarns, some of which were all cotton and some all wool. In its broad acceptance the term is applicable to any fabric woven partly of wool and partly of cotton to resemble true All-wool Flannel.

Woollen and Cotton Mixtures.—This term is used to designate fabrics which are composed of the fibres of wool and cotton which have been blended or scribbled together rather than to fabrics composed of distinct threads which are all-cotton and all-wool yarns woven together. A cotton warp and wool weft fabric is a union, not a mixture. Mixtures may be recognised, when dyed, by a careful examination of the fibres constituting the yarn. When such fibres are not of the same colour, it will be found to have been due to the difference of affinity for the dye between cotton and wool. The burning test is not close enough. Carbonising is the surest test that can be applied to determine the presence and percentage of cotton in any Woollen and Cotton Mixture fabric.

Woollen Fabric.—The typical woollen is a full-handling fabric in which structure and colouring cannot always be defined on account of the threads and picks, and even the fibres, having become thoroughly intermingled in passing through the operations of finishing. Strictly speaking, a woollen fabric should be made of fine wool (possibly noils included); but in the English Law Courts a definition of "woollen" fabrics as being composed of mungo, shoddy, cotton, etc., has been accepted.

Woollen Yarn in appearance possesses a fringe-like covering which gives it a fuzzy appearance. This is arrived at by using shorter wool than in the manufacture of worsted yarn and by giving it a twist. This fuzzy appearance distinguishes it from worsted yarn, which is a straight yarn in which the component fibres lie smoothly and parallel to each other. Woollen yarn is particularly suitable for the manufacture of cloths in which the colourings require to be blended, the fibres napped, as in Tweed, Cheviot, Doeskin, Broadcloth, Beaver, Frieze, Chinchilla, Blanket, and Flannel. Woollen yarn may be said to be a thread in which all the component fibres are entangled into each other and are in all different directions: this results in a yarn which is rough in appearance, non-lustrous, and more irregular than worsted yarn. It is only in this type of yarn that low-grade materials, such as mungo, shoddy, or extract, can be utilised. The fibres which constitute a woollen yarn are not as readily separated from the body of the yarn or cloth as in the case of worsted.